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AUTHORS. 


JOHN  N.  DRAKE, 
WILLIAM  E.  RUSSELL,  WILLIAiVI  McKINLEY, 

THOMAS  L.  JAMES, 
i 

J.  K.  UPTON,  RICHARD  P.  BLAND, 

CHAUNCEY  M.  OEPEW, 
HENRY  W.  CURTIS,  EDWARD  W.  BOK, 

JOHN  M.  FRANCIS, 
ALFRED  C.  BARNES,  L.  B.  PIERCE, 

WALDO  V,  BROWN, 

T.  B.  TERRY,  JAMES  H.  MANNING, 

I 

B.  A.  SMITH,  Mrs.  JULIA  M.  DEWEY. 

; 

^/^^^^ 

e  e 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PACK. 

OUR  TARIFF  AND  TARIFF  LEGISLATION,  i 
THE  TARIFF  QUESTION  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC 

STANDPOINT,  .  .  .  .  .  151 
THE  TARIFF  QUESTION  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN 

STANDPOINT,       .           .           .           .           .  192 

GOLD  AND  SILVER,     .  .  .  .  .214 

THE  SILVER  QUESTION,    ....  223 

THE  SILVER  QUESTION,         ....  244 

ORATION  ON  CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS,             .  253 

SUCCESS  IN  LIFE,        .....  266 

THE  COUNTRY  LAD  IN  THE  CITY,         .           .  269 

ECONOMY,         ......  282 

SINCERITY,             .....  289 

THE  HOME  ON  THE  FARM,  .          .          .          .291 

MONEY  IN  GARDENING,    ....  327 

POTATO  CULTURE,      .           .          .           .           •  373 

PARLIAMENTARY  LAW,      ....  447 

COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  FORMS,  .  .  .  529 

MANNERS  AND  USAGES  OF  SOCIETY,  .  .  623 


PREFACE. 


NEVER  before  in  the  history  of  our  country 
have  the  plain,  honest,  practical  people,  the 
backbone  of  the  nation,  taken  so  much  interest  in 
the  questions  of  the  day. 

The  true,  earnest  citizen  is  not  content  to  be  a 
mere  echo  for  his  party  leader,  but  is  thinking  for 
himself  and  acting  in  a  manner  that  often  bewilders 
and  alarms  the  professional  politician. 

We  believe  that  no  other  single  volume  presents 
an  equal  array  of  talent,  such  as  distinguishes  the 
well-known  authors  of  the  various  subjects. 

The  man  of  affairs  will  find  the  questions  of  the 
times  handled  by  acknowledged  masters. 

The  business  failures  and  riots  fresh  in  our  minds, 
show  that  these  questions  are  not  idle  theories,  but 
subjects  demanding  the  careful  thought  and  earnest 
attention  of  every  true  citizen. 

Our  friend,  the  farmer,  will  recognize  in  his 
department  old  friends,  whose  names  are  synony- 
mous with  the  highest  expert  knowledge  of  the 
subjects  with  which  they  deal. 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

It  is  believed  that  our  business  department  will 
convey  in  the  fewest  words  and  the  simplest  lang- 
uage more  "common  law  of  common  business"  than 
any  other  work  now  before  the  public.  Technical 
language  has  been  avoided  and  the  essential  points 
of  ordinary  transactions  fully  illustrated  and  ex- 
plained. 

Recognizing  in  the  ladies  our  best  customers  and 
most  charitable  critics,  we  have  given  special  pains 
to  the  subjects  in  which  they  have  a  particular 
interest. 

The  change  of  public  opinion,  the  sweeping  away 
of  old  traditions,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  woman 
is  widening  her  sphere,  will  render  her  department 
of  this  work  of  especial  value  to  her. 

We  have  striven  to  do  our  best,  and  believing  that 
the  practical  people  are  quick  to  reward  merit  and 
to  appreciate  worth,  we  submit  this  volume  for  their 
approval  and  will  abide  by  their  decision. 

THE  PUBLISHERS. 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  People. 


OUR  TARIFF  AND  TARIFF  LEGISLATION. 


BY  JOHN  N.  DRAKE. 

SOME  mode  of  taxation  is  the  necessary  ex- 
pedient of  all  civilized  governments  to  insure 
their  maintenance,  and  the  tariff,  which  is  an  in- 
direct tax,  is  one  of  the  oldest  devices  for  the 
raising  of  revenue.  The- Athenians  levied  a  two 
per  cent  duty  on  all  exports  and  imports  for  pub- 
lic revenue,  and  in  Rome  a  similar  system  prevailed. 
But  in  no  country  or  nation  has  the  tariff  played  so 
important  and  continuous  a  part  as  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  engaged,  not  to  say  puzzled,  the  best 
minds  of  our  public  men,  who  in  too  many  instances 
have  allowed  partisan  zeal  to  stand  in  the  way  of  a 
fair  and  just  treatment  of  the  subject.  At  the  same 
time,  due  praise  should  be  accorded  to  certain  mas- 
ters of  statecraft,  who  have  so  shaped  legislation 
during  critical  periods  of  our  national  history  as  to 
bring  about  the  best  possible  results. 

The  genius  of  the  American  people  is  essentially 
commercial.  This  quality  was  manifested  among  the 
early  colonists,  who,  in  matters  of  trade,  were  so 
ruthlessly  handicapped  and  intimidated  by  the  Mother 
Country.  It  was  not  until  after  the  Revolution,  how- 
ever, that  the  several  States  began  to  display  an 
assertive  commercial  spirit.  Though  joined  in  con- 


2     A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

federation  they  were  disposed  to  be  independent 
and  to  manage  their  affairs  chiefly  in  their  own 
interests.  But  international  trade  did  not  thrive, 
Congress  was  powerless  to  enforce  any  regulations 
respecting  it,  and  American  statesmen  in  those  days 
were  too  conservative  to  attempt  to  negotiate  any 
great  number  of  reciprocity  treaties.  In  fact  at  that 
period  Congress  was  a  sort  of  nondescript  institu- 
tion. The  States  themselves  possessed  the  exclusive 
authority  to  levy  taxes.  Finally  Massachusetts  and 
several  other  States  passed  navigation  acts  and  levied 
import  duties. 

In  the  meantime,  the  conflicting  and  more  or  less 
selfishly-guarded  interests  of  the  several  States  in- 
creased and  served  to  prevent  any  successful  action 
relating  to  the  regulation  of  commerce  by  Congress, 
which  was  nominally  vested  with  the  power.  The 
adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution  was  doubtless 
hastened  by  this  unhappy  condition  of  affairs.  The 
Virginia  planters,  who  had  become  impoverished, 
were  the  first  to  start  an  agitation.  They  demanded 
some  action  looking  to  the  improvement  of  trade. 
The  merchants  and  tradespeople  of  that  section 
warmly  opposed  this  measure,  because  they  were 
comparatively  prosperous  and  wanted  things  to  re- 
main as  they  were.  But  just  the  opposite  condition 
existed  in  Massachusetts  and  New  York  ;  there  the 
farmers  were  in  easy  circumstances,  while  the  mer- 
chants were  suffering.  So  they  took  sides  accord- 
ingly. As  a  result  of  this  unrest  a  national  trade 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  3 

convention  was  held  in  Annapolis  in  1786,  the  out- 
come of  which  was  the  National  Convention  of 
1787.  The  general  trade  depression  of  this  time  was 
attributable  to  the  general  poverty  of  the  people, 
who  were  being  victimized  by  the  excessive  issues  of 
paper  money.  The  industrial  growth  in  New  Eng- 
land was  greatly  retarded  by  the  evils  of  mismanaged 
finances,  and  the  manufacturing  enterprises  there 
substantially  came  to  a  standstill.  At  this  critical 
juncture,  when  irremediable  collapse  threatened  the 
nation,  certain  sagacious  men  perceived  that  in  the 
extension  of  the  powers  of  the  Confederation  lay 
the  only  adequate  remedy.  Financially  the  govern- 
ment could  not  have  been  in  a  much  worse  shape. 
It  lacked  resources  and  credit ;  its  debts  contracted 
by  Congress  were  falling  due.  Through  its  repre- 
sentatives New  York  signified  its  willingness  to 
allow  Congress  to  levy  a  duty  on  imports. 

In  a  lucid  and  able  report  to  Congress  Rufus 
King  declared  that  "  the  impost  was  an  absolute 
necessity  to  the  maintenance  of  the  faith  of  federal 
government." 

The  adoption  of  the  Constitution  gave  the  central 
government  the  power  to  levy  taxes  of  every  de- 
scription and  to  regulate  commerce  with  foreign 
governments.  The  only  limitation  imposed  upon 
the  exercise  of  the  right  to  levy  duties  on  imported 
commodities  was  that  the  duties  should  be  uniform 
throughout  the  land.  The  question  then  was  nat- 
urally suggested  whether  the  government  should 


4     A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

levy  taxes  for  any  other  purpose  than  raising  revenue, 
which  involved  the  other  question  whether  Congress 
has  the  right  to  levy  taxes  to  protect  and  encourage 
manufactures.  In  this  connection  Judge  Story  said  : 
"  Whichever  construction  of  the  power  to  levy  taxes 
is  adopted,  the  same  conclusion  is  sustained,  that  the 
power  to  levy  taxes  is  not  by  the  Constitution  con- 
fined to  purposes  of  revenue.  In  point  of  fact  it 
has  never  been  limited  to  such  purposes  by  Congress  ; 
and  all  the  great  functionaries  of  the  government 
have  constantly  maintained  the  doctrine  that  it  was 
not  constitutionally  so  limited." 

That  there  was  sufficient  warrant  for  investing 
Congress  with  the  power  to  levy  duties  for  other 
purposes  than  revenue  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  at 
that  time  every  civilized  nation  acted  upon  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  power  to  regulate  commerce  included 
the  right  to  encourage  manufactures. 

At  the  outset,  then,  it  was  recognized  that  a  tariff 
was  a  measure  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  raising 
revenue,  but  for  encouraging  domestic  manufactures 
and  regulating  commerce.  But  since  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Constitution  conditions  have  materially 
changed  and  likewise  have  altered  opinions  in  re- 
gard to  the  taxing  power  of  the  government. 

The  first  tariff  act  under  our  Federal  Constitution 
was  a  simple  measure  as  introduced  in  the  first  Con- 
gress by  Mr.  Madison,  April  8,  1789.  It  provided 
for  specific  duties  upon  rum  and  other  spirituous 
liquors,  wines,  teas,  coffee,  sugar,  molasses  and  pep> 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  5 

per,  and  for  ad  valorem  duties  upon  all  other  articles. 
The  debate  which  followed  the  introduction  of  this 
resolution  opened  the  flood-gates  of  the  great  con- 
troversy, which  has  continued  down  to  the  present 
day,  as  to  whether  the  tariff  should  be  protective  in 
effect  or  for  revenue  only.  Practically,  the  act  of 
i  789  was  to  raise  revenue;  incidentally,  its  aim  was 
to  protect  domestic  manufactures.  It  was  the  out- 
come of  necessity.  The  outbreak  known  as  Shay's 
rebellion  had  evidenced  how  bitterly  opposed  were 
the  people  to  the  excise  tax.  The  customs  duties 
seemed  to  afford  the  most  feasible  and  sensible  means 
of  indirect  taxation  and  for  the  next  quarter  of  a 
century  they  were  gradually  increased  in  number  and 
amount.  In  the  preamble  of  the  initial  tariff  law 
reported  by  James  Madison  it  was  stated  that  one  of 
the  objects  sought  was  "  the  encouragement  and 
protection  of  manufactures."  It  certainly  was  modest 
enough  in  its  provisions,  according  to  modern  pro- 
tection notions.  It  did  not  satisfy  the  needs  of  the 
hour,  at  least  it  did  not  effect  a  harmonious  arrange- 
ment between  the  many  conflicting  interests  then 
existent.  But  nearly  all  political  economists  agree 
that  it  was  a  step  in  the  right  direction. 

The  Madison  tariff  was  based  on  a  five  per  cent 
duty  for  revenue,  but  ad  valorem  duties  as  high  as 
fifteen  per  cent  were  fixed  upon  carriages.  The 
average  duty  levied  was  equivalent  to  an  ad  valorem 
duty  of  eight  and  one-half  per  cent,  which  was  con- 
sidered too  high  by  many,  who  prophesied  that  it 


6     A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

would  encourage  smuggling.  On  glass,  iron  manu- 
factures, hemp,  cordage,  etc.,  were  placed  specific 
duties  —  and  obviously  with  a  protective  object. 
However,  it  may  as  well  be  admitted,  that  Mr.  Mad- 
ison was  a  free  trader  at  heart.  His  public  utter- 
ances and  correspondence  fairly  bristle  with  evidences 
that  he  accepted  the  principles  of  free  trade  as  gospel 
but,  as  one  able  authority  on  the  tariff  has  pointed 
out,  he  admitted  that  those  principles  were  not 
applicable  to  articles  needed  in  time  of  war  and  in 
circumstances  to  which  the  young-industries  argu- 
ment was  germane. 

Almost  as  a  unit,  the  Southern  States  opposed  any 
scheme  of  protection,  while  Pennsylvania  demanded 
it  on  account  of  her  iron  and  steel  industries.  Mas- 
sachusetts made  rum  and  wanted  a  high  duty  upon 
it,  but  of  course  she  did  not  want  any  duty  upon 
molasses.  It  was  soon  discovered  that  the  Madison 
tariff  was  defective  in  that  it  did  not  afford  protection 
to  all  activities  alike.  One  section  was  benefited 
by  it  almost  invariably  at  the  expense  of  another 
section.  It  went  into  effect  July  4,  1789,  and  was  to 
remain  in  force  until  June,  1796.  This  act,  the 
foundation  of  the  American  tariff  system,  imposed 
the  following  duties:  Distilled  spirits  of  Jamaica, 
proof,  10  cents  per  gallon;  other  distilled  spirits,  8 
cents;  molasses,  2^  cents;  Madeira  wine,  18  cents; 
other  wines,  10  cents;  beer,  ale  and  porter,  in  casks, 
5  cents  per  gallon;  in  bottles,  20  cents  per  dozen; 
bottled  cider,  the  same;  malt,  10  cents  per  bushel; 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION,  J 

brown  sugar,  i  cent  per  pound;  loaf  sugar,  3  cents; 
other  sugars,  2\  cents;  coffee,  2^  cents;  cocoa,  i  cent; 
teas,  from  China  and  India,  in  American  vessels, 
ranged  from  6  to  20  cents  per  pound,  and  in  foreign 
vessels  somewhat  higher;  candles  from  2  to  6  cents 
per  pound;  cheese,  4  cents;  soap,  2  cents;  boots,  50 
cents  per  pair;  shoes,  from  7  to  10  cents,  according 
to  quality  of  material;  cables  and  tarred  cordage,  75 
cents  per  cwt. ;  untarred  cordage,  90  cents;  twine  and 
pack  thread,  $2;  unwroughi  steel,  50  cents  per  cwt.; 
rails  and  spikes,  i  cent  per  pound;  salt,  6  cents  per 
bushel;  manufactured  tobacco,  6  cents  per  pound; 
indigo,  1 6  cents  per  pound;  wool  and  cotton  cards, 
50  cents  per  dozen;  coal,  2  cents  per  bushel;  pickled 
fish,  75  cents  per  barrel;  dried  fish,  50  cents  per  quin- 
tal; playing  cards,  10  cents  per  pack;  hemp,  60  cents 
per  cwt.;  cotton,  3  cents  per  pound.  In  addition  to 
these  specific  duties  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  ten  per  cent 
was  levied  on  glass  of  all  kinds  (black  quart  bottles 
excepted)  china,  stone  and  earthenware,  gun  pow- 
der, paints,  shoe  and  knee  buckles,  and  gold  and  silver 
lace  and  leaf;  seven  and  one-half  per  cent  ad  valorem 
was  charged  upon  blank  books,  paper,  cabinet  wares, 
leather,  ready-made  clothing,  hats,  gloves,  millinery, 
canes,  brushes,  gold  and  silver  and  plated  ware  and 
jewelry,  buttons,  saddles,  slit  and  rolled  iron,  and 
castings  of  iron,  anchors,  tin  and  pewter  ware.  Upon 
all  other  articles,  including  manufactures  of  wool, 
cotton  and  linen,  five  per  cent  ad  valorem  was  to  be 
charged,  except  saltpetre,  tin,  lead,  old  pewter,  brass, 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

iron  and  brass  wire,  copper,  in  plates,  wool-dye  stuffs, 
hides  and  furs,  which  were  to  be  free  of  duty. 

The  first  act  of  the  First  Congress  was  a  merely 
formal  one,  regulating  the  form  of  the  oath  to  be 
taken  by  officials.  This  was  followed  by  the  act 
establishing  a  protective  tariff,  which,  on  July  4, 
1789,  was  passed  and  signed  by  George  Washington. 

Such  men  as  Charles  Carroll,  Rufus  King,  Fisher 
Ames,  Oliver  Ellsworth,  Roger  Sherman  and  J. 
Trumbull  shared  in  the  discussion.  This  First  Con- 
gress was  largely  composed  of  farmers,  but  they 
were  not  purblind  to  the  necessity  of  encouraging 
home  industries  ;  for  it  was  obvious  to  them  that  to 
secure  absolute  national  independence,  domestic 
manufactures  must  be  protected.  While  this  law 
remained  on  our  statute  book,  five  Presidents  found 
occasion  to  commend,  in  no  vague  terms,  its  benefi- 
cent results. 

In  his  first  annual  message  George  Washington 
declared  that  our  safety  and  interest  as  a  free  people 
required  the  promotion  of  such  manufactures  "as 
tend  to  render  them  independent  of  others  for  essen- 
tials, particularly  military  supplies."  On  the  i5th 
of  January,  1790,  the  House  of  Representatives,  in 
response  to  the  recommendations  in  the  message, 
passed  an  order :  "  That  it  be  referred  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  to  prepare  and  report  to  the 
house  the  proper  plan  or  plans,  conformably  to  the 
recommendation  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States  in  his  speech  to  both  houses  of  Congress,  for 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  9 

the  encouragement  and  promotion  of  such  manufac- 
tures as  will  tend  to  render  the  United  States  inde- 
pendent of  other  nations  for  essential,  particularly 
for  military,  supplies." 

In  December,  1791,  upon  the  opening  of  the 
second  session  of  the  Second  Congress,  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury,  Alexander  Hamilton,  submitted 
his  report,  which  for  beauty  of  diction,  scope  and 
clearness  of  argument  and  plenitude  of  forceful  illus- 
tration has  never  been  excelled  by  any  government 
document  ever  produced  in  this  country,  if  in  the 
woVld. 

Greeted  everywhere  with  enthusiastic  approval,  it 
served  for  almost  half  a  century  as  the  basis  of  the 
best  legislation  respecting  the  tariff.  The  principal 
circumstances  contributive  to  the  augmented  pro- 
duce and  revenue  of  a  nation  through  manufacturing 
establishments  were  enumerated  by  Mr.  Hamilton  as 
follows  : 

1.  The  division  of  labor. 

2.  An  extension  of  the  use  of  machinery. 

3.  Additional  employment  to  classes  of  the  com- 
munity not  ordinarily  engaged  in  business. 

4.  The    promoting    of    emigration    from    foreign 
countries. 

5.  The  furnishing  greater  scope  for  the  diversity 
of  talents  and  dispositions  which  discriminates  men 
from  each  other. 

6.  The  affording  of  a  more  ample  and  various  field 
for  enterprise. 


IO    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

7.  The  creating,  in  some  instances,  a  new,  and 
securing,  in  all,  a  more  certain  and  steady  demand 
for  the  surplus  produce  of  the  soil. 

Referring  to  our  economical  system,  in  his  last 
annual  message,  John  Adams,  our  second  President, 
said :  "  I  observe,  with  much  satisfaction,  that  the 
product  of  the  revenue  during  the  present  year  has 
been  more  considerable  than  during  any  former 
period.  This  result  affords  conclusive  evidence  of 
the  great  resources  of  the  country,  and  of  the  wis- 
dom and  efficiency  of  the  measures  which  have  been 
adopted  by  Congress,  for  the  protection  of  commerce 
and  preservation  of  the  public  credit." 

In  various  messages  Jefferson  referred  to  the 
manifold  advantages  arising  from  a  protective  tariff. 
In  1807  he  offered  suggestions  as  to  the  best  method 
of  disposing  of  the  surplus  that  then  seemed  likely 
to  be  left  after  paying  all  the  public  debt  called  for 
by  our  contracts.  A  little  later  his  convictions  were 
stated  in  these  words  :  "  The  general  inquiry  now  is, 
shall  we  make  our  own  comforts,  or  go  without  them 
at  the  will  of  a  foreign  nation?  He,  therefore,  who 
is  now  against  domestic  manufactures,  must  be  for 
reducing  us  either  to  a  dependence  upon  that  nation, 
or  to  be  clothed  in  skins  and  live  like  beasts  in  caves 
and  dens.  I  am  proud  to  say  I  am  not  one  of  these. 
Experience  has  taught  me  that  manufactures  are  now 
as  necessary  to  our  independence  as  to  our  comforts. 
The  prohibiting  duties  we  lay  on  all  articles  of  foreign 
manufacture,  which  prudence  requires  us  to  estab- 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  II 

lish  at  home,  with  the  patriotic  determination  of 
every  good  citizen  to  use  no  foreign  article  which  can 
be  made  within  oursel.es,  without  regard  to  differ- 
ence of  price,  secures  us  against  a  relapse  in  foreign 
dependency." 

Madison  and  Monroe  were  equally  zealous  in  the 
advocacy  of  protective  measures.  The  former,  often 
called  "  the  father  of  the  Constitution,"  considerably 
relaxed  his  conservatism  respecting  the  tariff  which 
at  its  inception  was  more  or  less  tentative.  Suffice 
it  to  say,  Madison's  public  life  and  deeds  place  him  in 
the  front  rank  of  the  adherents  of  protection. 

Between  the  passage  of  the  first  tariff  act  and  the 
beginning  of  the  war  of  1812,  twelve  additional  acts 
were  passed,  but  the  changes  in  the  law  were  im- 
material, a  gradual  increase  in  the  rates  of  duty 
being  their  most  notable  feature.  During  this  period 
there  was  no  sharp  division  of  party  lines  on  the 
tariff,  nor  was  it  made  manifest  until  after  the  close 
of  the  war  of  1812.  Our  people  had  little  cause  for 
internal  wrangling  in  these  years.  The  Tariff  of  1789 
quickened  industry  and  trade  in  every  populated  part 
of  the  Union;  agriculture  thrived  as  it  had  never 
done  before  on  this  hemisphere;  the  expenses  of  the 
government  were  met  by  our  rapidly-increasing 
revenue ;  our  merchant-navy  was  revived  and  the 
interests  of  ship-building  multiplied. 

The  war  between  Great  Britain  and  France  greatly 
retarded  our  international  trade  and  led  to  compli- 
cations which  both  harmed  and  helped  us.  The  Old 


12    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

World  was  inflamed  by  the  example  of  our  people  in 
achieving  their  independence.  "  The  only  neutral 
commercial  nation,  we  became  the  carriers  on  the 
ocean  of  the  belligerents,  and  fed  their  armies  with 
the  products  of  our  agriculture.  As  their  necessities 
knew  no  bounds,  our  means  and  industries  were 
wholly  absorbed  in  ministering  to  them.  It  was  our 
golden  age."  But  jealousy,  both  in  England  and 
France,  was  excited  by  the  spectacle  of  our  prosperity. 
They  prohibited  all  commerce  with  the  other,  estab- 
lished blockades,  and  authorized  the  seizure  and 
search  of  neutral  vessels  wherever  found  on  the  main. 
Accordingly  our  vessels  were  rigorously  treated  by 
their  captors  and  our  flag  insulted.  As  a  measure  of 
retaliation  against  these  outrages  and  invasions 
against  our  rights  on  the  high  seas,  Congress,  at  the 
suggestion  of  President  Jefferson,  passed  the  so- 
called  Embargo  Act  in  1808,  which  was  in  no  true 
sense  of  the  term  a  tariff  act,  as  has  been  frequently 
asserted  by  free-trade  writers.  By  reason  of  this  act 
"we  practically  withdrew  from  the  ocean,"  But 
the  expedient  scarcely  succeeded  in  the  manner 
desired  by  its  promoters,  as,  at  the  time,  our  home 
productions  were  somewhat  limited,  and  within  a 
year,  through  Mr.  Jefferson's  influence,  the  Embargo 
Act  was  repealed.  But  its  brief  existence  "gave  a 
great  stimulus  to  the  establishment  of  new  industries 
and  manufactures  for  making  those  articles  which 
formerly  were  imported,  but  which  tinder  that  pro- 
hibition had  to  be  made  here  or  not  at  all."  In  1808 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  13 

we  passed  the  Act  of  Non-intercourse  ;  and  finally 
declared  war  in  1812  against  England,  being  unable 
longer  to  endure  her  meddlesome  tyranny. 

Nothing  could  better  illustrate  the  national  vigor 
and  endurance  of  the  American  people  than  this 
terrible  three  years'  war  with  England.  In  order  to 
carry  it  on  we  doubled  the  tariff  duties,  which  proved 
the  salvation  of  our  home  industries.  Our  importa- 
tions being  enormously  diminished,  our  only  recourse 
to  supply  ourselves  with  necessities  was  to  erect 
factories  and  foundries  of  our  own.  In  spite  of  the 
tremendous  drain  upon  our  finances  and  credit 
entailed  by  this  war,  our  manufactures  flourished  from 
very  necessity.  But  the  country  in  general  was  in  a 
sorry  plight  at  the  termination  of  hostilities  in  1815. 
Our  shipping  interests  had  become  wholly  demoral- 
ized. To  render  matters  still  worse,  England  glutted 
our  markets  with  vast  quantities  of  merchandise,  for 
which  we  had  nothing  to  pay. 

From  all  sides  arose  the  clamor  for  tariff  legisla- 
tion. In  obedience  thereto  the  famous  Tariff  Act  of 
1816  was  passed.  It  comprehended  the  repeal  of 
the  law  of  1789  and  the  amendment  of  1812  and  sub- 
stituted lower  duties.  While  nominally  presented 
by  Mr.  Lowndes,  member  of  Congress  from  South 
Carolina,  and  chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Ways 
and  Means  of  the  House,  "the  burden  of  its  support 
was  assumed  by  Mr.  John  C.  Calhoun,  then  a  mem- 
ber of  the  House,  who,  next  to  Mr.  Clay,  was  the 
most  commanding  and  influential  figure  in  it." 


14    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

The  practical  object  of  this  act  was  to  raise  a  bar- 
rier against  the  tremendous  torrent  of  English  goods 
which  were  being  dumped  upon  our  shores  and 
offered  to  our  consumers  far  below  cost.  Though 
no  sectional  or  local  issues  were  raised  during  the 
discussion  of  the  bill,  many  Northern  members  voted 
against  it  "  on  the  ground  that  the  interests  of  their 
constituents  were  not  properly  considered."  Yet  all 
agreed  that  protection  was  the  end  and  revenue  the 
incident  of  the  measure,  which  was  the  second  im- 
portant step  in  the  legislation  of  this  country.  But 
it  may  as  well  be  said  at  once  that  the  Tariff  Act  of 
1816  was  not  only  ineffectual  but  futile.  To  quote 
from  a  high  authority:  "  The  duties  it  imposed 
averaged  about  sixteen  per  cent  ad  valorem,  which  was 
thought  to  be  sufficient,  because  the  authors  of  the 
measure  had  no  conception  of  the  altered  conditions 
of  production  and  exchange." 

Mr.  Calhoun  stated  in  his  speech  that  the  capital 
formerly  employed  in  commerce  had  been  diverted 
to  manufactures.  "This,"  he  said,  "if  things  con- 
tinue as  they  are,  will  be  their  direction.  It  will 
introduce  a  new  era  in  our  affairs,  in  many  respects 
highly  advantageous,  and  ought  to  be  countenanced 
by  the  government."  Other  similar  assertions,  com- 
ing as  they  did  from  a  Southern  man,  were  very  sig- 
nificant, for  at  that  time  the  South  favored  protection, 
while  many  parts  of  the  North  opposed  it.  Mr. 
Webster  always  referred  to  the  Tariff  of  1816  as  a 
South  Carolina  measure. 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION'.  15 

The  tendency  was  to  adopt  specific  duties.  The 
minimum  principle  was  also  introduced  --  goods 
valued  below  a  fixed  price  paid  the  same  rate  of  duty 
as  the  minimum  figure.  As  has  been  urged,  the  new 
tariff  was  not  effective  as  a  protective  measure ;  for 
while  enormous  importations  filled  the  public  treas- 
ury, the  markets  of  the  country,  still  prostrated  from 
the  effects  of  the  war,  became  unsettled.  Specula- 
tion speedily  assumed  the  semblance  of  a  mania,  and 
this,  coupled  with  the  inflation  of  paper  currency, 
only  served  to  darken  the  situation.  The  increased 
competition  resulting  from  the  new  tariff  still  further 
depressed  and  crippled  our  home  markets.  New 
England  capital  had  been  largely  invested  in  manu 
facturing,  and,  as  this  did  not  thrive,  that  section 
soon  emphatically  demanded  more  protection  and  at 
the  same  time  bitterly  denounced  British  manufac- 
turers, who,  it  was  maintained,  were  leagued  against 
American  industry.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  in- 
structive to  read  a  single  paragraph  from  Miles'  His- 
tory :  "  It  is  notorious  that  great  sums  of  money 
were  expended  by  the  British  to  destroy  our  flocks 
of  sheep  that  they  might  thereby  ruin  our  manufac- 
tures. They  bought  up  and  immediately  slaugh- 
tered great  numbers  of  sheep  ;  they  bought  our  best 
machinery  and  sent  it  off  to  England,  and  hired  our 
best  mechanics  and  most  skilful  workmen  to  go  to 
England,  simply  to  get  them  out  of  this  country,  and 
so  hinder  and  destroy  our  existing  and  prospective 
manufactures." 


1 6    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Our  national  existence  was  threatened.  Those 
whom  ruin  and  bankruptcy  did  not  claim  for  their 
own  were  none  the  less  alarmed.  An  organized 
movement  was  soon  inaugurated  in  favor  of  higher 
duties.  Societies  for  the  promotion  of  domestic  in- 
dustry were  formed  in  several  States ;  conventions 
were  held  and  forcible  addresses  issued  to  the  people, 
in  which  British  greed  and  meanness  were  unspar- 
ingly censured.  In  1817  the  leading  New  York  mer- 
chants united  in  a  memorial  to  Congress  to  save  our 
commerce,  as  well  as  our  manufactures,  from  utter 
collapse,  by  increasing  the  tariff  duties. 

An  amendatory  act  was  passed  in  1818,  whose  pur- 
pose was  to  postpone  the  reduction  until  1826  of  the 
duty  on  certain  articles  named  in  the  act  of  1816. 
Continued  agitation  resulted  in  an  attempt  to  pass  a 
high  tariff  measure  in  1820.  There  was  also  an  effort 
to  abolish  the  credit  system,  which  then  applied  to 
imports  and  was  the  forerunner  of  the  modern  ware- 
house system. 

The  protection  sentiment  had  waxed  so  strong 
that  had  the  condition  of  the  treasury  warranted  it  a 
tariff  measure  doubtless  would  have  been  enacted  to 
prohibit  the  importation  of  iron,  cottons  and  woollens. 
As  it  was,  the  only  thing  that  could  be  done  was  to 
raise  the  rates  on  these  articles,  principally  in  retalia- 
tion. England  imposed  high  duties  on  wools  and 
France  taxed  American  cotton  highly.  American 
wheat  also,  an  important  article  of  export,  was  sub- 
ject to  high  duties  by  European  nations.  In  short, 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  17 

for  a  number  of  years  after  the  act  of  1816  no 
material  change  for  the  better  occurred  in  our  dis- 
tressed and  impoverished  land. 

THE  TARIFF  ACT  OF  1824. 

With  the  passage  of  the  Tariff  Act  of  1824  began 
the  real  system  of  protection  in  the  United  States. 
It  proved  a  relief  measure  of  widespread  importance 
and  benefit  to  all  classes  of  our  population.  Though 
reported  on  the  gth  of  January,  by  Mr.  Tod  of 
Pennsylvania,  in  behalf  of  the  committee  of  the 
House  on  manufactures,  as  a  bill  for  the  amendment 
of  the  act  in  1836,  by  adding  largely  upon  certain 
articles  to  the  duties  provided  by  that  act,  the  great 
champion  of  this  new  measure  was  Mr.  Clay,  who  is 
frequently  designated  as  the  sponsor  of  the  so-called 
"American  system  "  Few  measures  have  ever  attrac- 
ted so  absorbed  an  interest  in  Congress  as  did  this 
one.  Speaking  in  its  behalf,  Mr.  Clay  said  :  "  The 
principle  of  the  system  under  consideration  has  the 
sanction  of  some  of  the  best  and  wisest  men  in  all 
ages,  in  foreign  countries  as  well  as  our  own,  of  the 
Edwards,  of  Henry  the  Great,  of  Elizabeth,  of  the 
Colberts  abroad  ;  of  our  Franklin,  Jefferson,  Madi- 
son, Hamilton  at  home.  But  it  comes  recommended 
to  us  by  higher  authority  than  any  of  these,  illustrious 
as  they  unquestionably  are,  by  the  masterspirit  of  the 
age,  that  extraordinary  man  who  has  thrown  the  Alex- 
anders and  the  Caesars  infinitely  further  behind  him 


1 8    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

than  they  stood  in  advance  of  their  most  eminent  pre- 
decessors, that  singular  man,  who,  whether  he  was 
seated  on  his  imperial  throne  deciding  the  fate  of 
nations  and  allotting  kingdoms  to  the  members  of  his 
family  with  the  same  composure,  if  not  with  the  affec- 
tion as  that  with  which  a  Virginia  father  divides  his 
plantations  among  his  children,  or  on  the  miserable 
rock  of  St.  Helena,  to  which  he  was  condemned  by  the 
cruelty  and  injustice  of  his  unworthy  victors,  is 
equally  an  object  of  the  most  intense  admiration — • 
Napoleon  Bonaparte.  He  opposed  the  principles  of 
economists,  which  he  said  were  correct  in  theory, 
though  erroneous  in  application.  '  Duties,'  he  said, 
'which  were  so  condemned  by  political  economists 
should  not,  it  is  true,  be  an  object  to  the  treasury; 
they  should  be  a  guarantee  and  protection  to  the 
nation,'  and  should  correspond  with  the  nature  and 
objects  of  its  trade.  I  have  not  fallen  into  the 
error  of  modern  sympathizers,  who  imagine  that  all 
the  wisdom  of  nations  is  centered  in  themselves. 
Experience  is  the  true  wisdom  of  nations.  And  what 
does  all  the  reasoning  of  economists  amount  to  ? 
They  incessantly  extol  the  prosperity  of  England, 
and  hold  her  up  as  our  model;  but  the  custom  house 
system  is  more  burdensome  and  arbitrary  in  England 
than  in  any  other  country.  In  France  we  are  still  very 
far  behind  on  these  delicate  points,  which  are  still 
unperceived  or  ill-understood  by  the  mass  of  society.' " 
To  which  the  sagacious  Mr.  Webster,  always  on 
the  alert  to  heap  sarcasm  on  any  logical  lapses  or 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  IQ 

inadvertences  on  the  part  of  an  adversary,  replied  in 
his  grand  manner  : 

"Indeed,  sir,  it  is  a  little  astonishing,  if  it  seemed 
convenient  to  Mr.  Speaker  (Mr.  Clay),  for  the  pur- 
pose of  distinction,  to  make  use  of  the  terms  'Ameri- 
can policy '  and  '  foreign  policy,'  that  he  should  not 
have  applied  them  in  a  manner  precisely  the  reverse 
of  that  in  which  he  has  in  fact  used  them.  If  names 
are  thought  necessary  it  would  be  well  enough,  one 
would  think,  that  the  name  should  be  in  some  manner 
descriptive  of  the  thing ;  and  since  Mr.  Speaker 
denominates  the  policy  which  he  recommends  'a  new 
policy  in  this  country; '  since  he  speaks  of  the  present 
measure  as  a  new  era  in  our  legislation;  since  he  pro- 
poses to  invite  us  to  depart  from  our  accustomed 
course,  to  instruct  ourselves  by  the  wisdom  of  others, 
and  to  adopt  the  policy  of  the  most  distinguished 
foreign  States,  one  is  a  little  curious  to  know  with 
what  propriety  of  speech  this  imitation  is  denomi- 
nated an  'American  policy,' while  on  the  contrary,  a 
preference  for  our  own  established  system,  as  it  now 
actually  exists  and  always  existed,  is  called  a  '  foreign 
policy.'  This  favorite  American  policy  is  what 
America  has  never  tried,  and  this  odious  foreign 
policy  is  what,  as  we  are  told,  foreign  States  have 
never  pursued."  . 

Mr.  Clay's  "  American  system  "  had  for  its  essen- 
tial idea  the  imposition  of  high  duties  on  manufac- 
tures in  order  to  furnish  a  home  market  for  our 
surplus  farm  products.  Mr.  Webster  led  the  mem- 


2O    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

bers  from  the  shipping  States  in  a  most  determined 
opposition  to  this  measure,  protesting  that  it  did  not 
sufficiently  recognize  the  claims  of  such  interests. 
The  bill  was  violently  opposed  by  one  of  the  ablest 
debaters  of  his  time,  John  Randolph,  who,  in  the 
course  of  a  speech,  said,  after  picturing  the  great 
advantages  of  Great  Britain  in  manufacturing  :  "  It 
is  in  such  a  climate  only  that  the  human  animal  can 
bear,  without  extirpation,  the  corrupted  air,  the  noi- 
some exhalation,  the  incessant  labor  of  these  accursed 
manufactories.  Yes,  sir,  accursed  ;  for  I  say  it  is  an 
accursed  thing.  We  should  have  the  yellow  fever 
from  June  to  January,  and  January  to  June.  The 
climate  of  this  country  alone,  were  there  no  other 
natural  obstacles  to  it,  says  aloud, — you  shall  not 
manufacture." 

Among  the  prominent  supporters  of  this  bill  were 
Colonel  Benton,  General  Andrew  Jackson,  then  Sena- 
tor from  Tennessee,  Martin  Van  Buren,  then  Senator 
from  New  York,  Richard  M.  Johnson,  then  a  Senator 
from  Kentucky,  afterward  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  Louis  Me  Lane,  then  a  Representative 
from  Delaware,  and  afterward  a  member  of  General 
Jackson's  Cabinet,  General  Sam.  Houston,  then  a  Rep- 
resentative from  Tennessee,  and  afterward  Senator 
from  Texas,  and  Mr.  Crawford  of  Georgia,  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  under  Mr.  Monroe,  and  along  with 
three  other  gentlemen,  a  candidate  for  the  presidency 
in  that  year  (1824).  The  contest  over  this  Tariff  law 
in  Congress  lasted  more  than  ten  weeks,  and  the  bill, 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  21 

which  imposed  an  average  rate  of  duty  of  about 
twenty  per  cent,  was  finally  passed  May  22d  by  a 
majority  of  only  five  in  the  House  and  four  in  the 
Senate.  Both  John  Quincy  Adams  and  Henry  Clay 
voted  for  it. 

The  prospects  of  a  home  market  most  strongly 
appealed  to  the  leading  agricultural  States  of  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  Ken- 
tucky, by  whose  united  votes  the  bill  was  carried. 
New  England  was  divided,  Connecticut  and  Rhode 
Island  voting  for  it.  On  account  of  their  cotton  in- 
dustries these  two  States  had  been  drifting  protec- 
tionward  for  a  number  of  years.  It  was  not  until 
about  1830  that  Massachusetts  fell  in  line  as  a  pro- 
tection State.  The  Tariff  of  1824  put  on  wool,  hemp, 
coarse  cotton  fabrics,  iron  and  lead  increased  duties, 
and  these  were  deemed  injurious  to  New  England 
interests.  In  consequence,  Massachusetts  and  the 
other  New  England  States,  except  Rhode  Island 
and  Connecticut,  vigorously  opposed  it. 

The  Southern  leaders  almost  unanimously  had 
done  yeoman  service  to  bring  the  Tariff  Act  of  1816 
into  existence.  But  shortly  afterward  the  South  be- 
gan to  doubt  the  merits  of  protection  as  applied  to 
itself,  and  fiercely  opposed  the  bill  of  1820.  It  had 
become  evident  to  them  that  slavery  and  manufac- 
tures could  not  prosper  together  in  the  South.  And 
there  was  no  question  as  to  which  road  they  must 
travel.  So  the  Tariff  Bill  of  1824  was  opposed  by  the 
solid  South,  but,  as  we  have  seen,  it  went  into  effect. 


22    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Under  this  act  trade  generally  expanded,  the  demand 
for  labor  was  greatly  enhanced,  and  nearly  everybody, 
except  the  woollen  manufacturers,  was  happy  and 
contented.  In  the  United  States  Senate,  several 
years  later,  Henry  Clay  said :  "  If  the  term  of  seven 
years  were  to  be  selected  of  the  greatest  prosperity 
which  this  people  has  enjoyed  since  the  establish- 
ment of  their  present  Constitution,  it  would  be  ex- 
actly that  period  of  seven  years  which  immediately 
followed  the  passage  of  the  Tariff  of  1824." 

The  minimum  system  regulating  cotton  goods  dur- 
ing this  period  had  made  their  manufacture  a  very 
lucrative  pursuit.  This  was  not  true  of;  the  woollen 
industry,  which  had  not  been  encouraged  by  either 
the  acts  of  1816  or  of  1824.  The  woollen  makers  of 
Massachusetts  were  not  slow  to  perceive  that  they 
needed  legislation,  and  in  the  Congressional  session 
of  1828  a  new  tariff  bill  was  reported  by  the  Com- 
mittee of  Manufactures  of  the  House.  The  wool- 
len makers  were  not  the  only  parties  interested  in 
higher  protective  duties,  but  the  chief  object  of  the 
bill  as  drafted  was  to  provide  a  largely-increased  pro- 
tection to  the  manufacture  of  wool,  an  industry  sadly 
suffering  from  English  competition.  The  opposi- 
tion to  this  tariff  was  bitterly  manifested  at  the 
South,  where  secession  had  already  been  openly  sug- 
gested and  discussed  as  the  only  means  of  immunity 
from  unjust  national  legislation.  Southern  members 
demanded,  through  the  Committee  of  Ways  and 
Means,  an  utter  and  absolute  abandonment  of  the 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  23 

protective  system,  declaring  that  "  Congress  should 
adopt  no  half-way  measures,  no  temporary  expedi- 
ents, but  reform  it  altogether." 

The  act  of  1828,  supplementing  that  of  1824,  was 
passed  and  provided  that : 

"  On  manufactures  of  wool,  or  of  which  wool  shall 
be  a  component  part  (except  carpetings,  blankets, 
worsted  stuff  goods,  bombazines,  hosiery,  mitts, 
gloves,  caps  and  bindings),  the  actual  value  of  which, 
at  the  place  whence  imported,  shall  not  exceed  fifty 
cents  per  square  yard,  shall  be  deemed  to  have  cost 
fifty  cents  the  square  yard,  and  be  charged  thereon 
with  a  duty  of  forty  per  centum  ad  valorem,  until 
June  30,  1832,  and  from  that  time  a  duty  of  forty-five 
per  centum. 

"Manufactures  of  wool,  except  flannels  and  baizes, 
the  actual  value  of,  etc.,  shall  not  exceed  thirty-three 
and  one-third  cents  per  square  yard,  pay  fourteen 
cents  per  square  yard. 

"  Manufactures  of  wool,  etc.,  actual  value  exceed- 
ing fifty  cents  per  square  yard,  not  exceeding  $i  the 
square  yard,  shall  be  deemed  to  have  cost  $i  the 
square  yard,  and  be  charged  thereon  with  a  duty  of 
forty  per  centum  ad  valorem  to  June  30,  1829,  and  from 
that  time  a  duty  of  forty-five  per  centum  ad  valorem. 

"Manufactures  of  wool,  etc.,  value  exceeding  $i, 
not  $2.50  per  yard,  shall  be  deemed  to  have  cost 
$2. 50  per  square  yard,  and  be  charged  with  a  duty 
thereon  of  forty  per  centum  to  June  30,  1829,  and 
from  that  time  a  duty  of  forty- five  per  centum. 


24    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

"Manufactures  of  wool,  etc.,  exceeding  $2.50,  not 
$4  per  square  yard,  shall  be  deemed  to  have  cost  at 
the  place  whence  imported  $4  per  square  yard,  and 
a  duty  of  forty  per  centum  shall  be  levied,  etc.,  until 
June  30,  1829,  and  from  that  time  a  duty  of  forty- 
five  per  centum. 

"  Manufactures  of  wool,  etc.,  the  actual  value  of 
which,  etc.,  shall  exced  $4  per  yard,  a  duty  of  forty-, 
five  per  centum  ad  valorem  until  June  30,  1829,  and 
from  that  time  a  duty  of  fifty  per  centum."' 

Previous  to  the  passage  of  the  Tariff  Act  of  1828 
"politics"  of  a  singularly  practical  kind  had  begun 
to  creep  into  legislative  affairs.  In  1827  the  wool- 
lens bill  had  been  defeated,  but  the  protection  advo- 
cates were  not  discouraged.  On  the  contrary,  they 
resolved  to  keep  up  the  struggle  and  to  include  in 
the  scheme  of  higher  duties  those  which  agricultural- 
ists and  manufacturers  might  be  persuaded  would 
benefit  them.  To  that  end  the  Harrisburg  conven- 
tion was  held  in  the  midsummer  of  1827,  and  here 
partisan  feeling  was  plainly  in  evidence.  As  yet 
public  opinion  had  not  been  divided  on  party  lines 
between  protection  and  free  trade,  but  almost  as  by 
magic  two  political  parties  had  sprung  into  existence. 
One  was  the  Adams  party,  soon  afterward  to  be 
known  as  the  Whigs,  and  the  other  was  the  Jackson 
party,  soon  afterward  to  be  known  as  the  Democrats. 
The  Adams  men  were  avowedly  protectionists,  but 
the  attitude  of  the  Jackson  contingent,  on  this  as  on 

*  Customs —  Tariff  Legislation,  38,  39. 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  25 

some  other  public  issues,  cannot  be  so  easily  defined. 
Considerable  divergence  of  opinion  prevailed  among 
the  Jackson  men,  as,  for  instance,  on  the  bank  ques- 
tion, and  internal  improvements.  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Ohio  were  protection  States  whose 
votes  were  necessary  to  elect  Jackson.  Some  bait 
must  be  held  out  to  capture  the  vote  of  these  three 
great  States,  something  done  to  satisfy  them  that  he 
was  a  true  friend  of  home  industry.  But  he  stood 
between  two  fires,  for  the  Southern  members,  who, 
with  scarcely  an  exception,  were  his  ardent  support- 
ers, unequivocally  opposed  higher  duties,  and,  fur- 
thermore, demanded  that  the  tariff  then  in  operation 
imposed  unjust  taxes  on  the  slave  States. 

Fortune,  however,  favored  Jackson.  His  military 
renown  was  the  pride  of  the  Southern  people,  and  in 
the  twentieth  Congress  it  was  discovered  that  his 
star  was  in  the  ascendency.  A  policy  of  obstruction 
was  begun  in  order  to  delay  the  Tariff  report  by  the 
Committee  on  Manufactures,  five  of  whom  were  sup- 
porters of  Jackson,  and  two  of  Adams.  But  this 
program  could  not  be  carried  out,  as  the  Jackson 
men,  both  South  and  North,  irrespective  of. their 
differences  on  the  Tariff  question,  united  to  secure 
the  passage  of  the  resolution  requested  by  the  com- 
mittee to  examine  witnesses,  with  a  view  to  gaining 
information  respecting  the  state  of  the  woollen 
manufacture. 

Finally  the  bill  was  reported  to  the  House  on  Jan- 
uary 3ist.  Henry  Clay,  four  years  afterward,  inti- 


26    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

mated  that  this  bill  "was  so  framed  on  the  advice  of 
a  prominent  citizen,  now  abroad  (Martin  Van  Buren, 
who  had  been  made  Minister  to  England  in  1831), 
with  a  view  of  ultimately  defeating  the  bill,  and  with 
assurances  that  being  altogether  unacceptable  to  the 
friends  of  the  American  system,  the  bill  would  be 
lost."  Its  passage  at  all  events  surprised  its  authors, 
according  to  Prof.  Taussig,  than  whom  no  one  man 
knows  more  concerning  the  Tariff  history  of  the 
United  States.  Its  shrewd  and  ingenious  details, 
which  are  too  numerous  to  go  into  here,  were  the 
work  of  politicians  whose  obvious  purpose  was  to 
bolster  up  Jackson's  chances  in  the  approaching 
campaign  and  election. 

The  Tariff  Act  of  1828  was  unsatisfactory  to 
everyone  save  a  few  extremists,  and  it  has  been 
handed  down  in  history  as  the  Abominations  Tariff. 
Daniel  Webster,  to  whom  hitherto  high  protective 
duties  had  seemed  dangerous,  at  least  to  the  New 
England  community,  felt  obliged  to  swallow  the 
bitterest  pill  of  all,  because  of  "  paramount  considera- 
tions"-— which,  translated  into  less  lofty  language, 
meant  u  politics." 

General  Jackson  was  elected  to  the  Presidency  in 
1828,  as  had  been  generally  expected.  Both  he  and 
his  opponent,  Mr.  Adams,  ran  as  Republicans,  both  as 
high  protective  advocates,  both  as  champions  of 
internal  improvements,  etc.  In  his  inaugural  address 
General  Jackson  committed  himself  to  the  doctrine 
of  State  Sovereignty  in  words  that  cannot  be  mis- 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  2/ 

taken.  He  said  :  "In  such  measures  as  I  may  be 
called  on  to  pursue  in  regard  to  the  rights  of  the 
separate  States,  I  hope  to  be  animated  by  a  proper 
respect  for  those  Sovereign  members  of  the  Union  ; 
taking  care  not  to  confound  the  powers  they  have 
reserved  to  themselves  with  those  they  have  granted 
to  the  Confederacy." 

Three  States  already,  in  one  way  and  another, 
had  given  voice  to  the  dogma  of  State's  rights,  and 
denied  the  authority  of  the  Federal  government: 
Virginia,  in  the  resolutions  of  1798;  Georgia, 
through  Governor  Troup  to  the  Legislature  of  that 
State,  in  1825,  and  South  Carolina,  in  a  series  of 
resolutions  passed  in  the  same  year,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing is  a  sample  :  "  Resolved,  That  it  is  an  uncon- 
stitutional exercise  of  power  on  the  part  of  Congress 
to  lay  duties  to  protect  domestic  manufactures."* 

Again  in  1827,  by  a  vote  of  her  Legislature,  the 
State  of  Georgia  supported  the  opinions  expressed 
by  Governor  Troup  two  years  before,  substantially 
to  the  effect  that  it  was  contrary  to  the  letter  and 
spirit  of  the  Federal  Constitution  for  Congress  to 
adopt  and  prosecute  a  policy  "obviously  grinding 
down  the  resources  of  one  class  of  States  to  build 
up  and  advance  the  prosperity  of  another  of  the 
same  confederacy,"  which,  be  it  said,  was  in  itself  a 
just  enough  proposition.  Again  in  the  same  year, 
South  Carolina  passed  another  set  of  protests  de- 
claring "  that  Congress  has  no  power  to  construct 

*  Niles'  Register,  29,  293. 


28    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

roads  and  canals  in  the  States,  for  the  purpose  of 
internal  improvements,  with  or  without  the  assent 
of  the  States  in  whose  limits  those  internal  improve- 
ments are  made,  the  authority  of  Congress  extending 
no  farther  than  to  pass  the  '  necessary  and  proper  laws ' 
to  carry  into  execution  their  enumerated  powers." 

In  a  preceding  paragraph  it  was  resolved,  "  that 
the  acts  of  Congress  known  by  the  name  of  the 
tariff  laws,  the  object  of  which  is  not  the  raising  of 
revenue  or  the  regulation  of  foreign  commerce,  but 
the  promotion  of  domestic  manufactures,  are  viola- 
tions of  the  Constitution  in  its  spirit,  and  ought  to 
be  repealed." 

Still  smarting  under  her  grievance,  South  Caro- 
lina, through  her  Legislature,  on  December  19, 
1828,  after  the  Tariff  Act  of  that  year  had  been 
passed,  and  after  General  Jackson's  election  to  the 
Presidency,  adopted  an  elaborate  series  of  protests 
against  the  system  of  protective  duties  as  unconsti- 
tutional, oppressive  and  unjust.  On  the  i2th  of 
January,  1829,  the  State  of  Georgia  protested 
against  the  Tariff  Act  of  1828,  characterizing  it  as 
deceptive  in  its  title,  as  not  having  accomplished 
an  "alteration  of  the  several  acts  imposing  duties 
on  imports,  fraudulent  in  its  pretexts,  oppressive  in 
its  exactions,  partial  and  unjust  in  its  operations, 
etc.,  to  secure  a  hateful  monopoly  to  a  combination 
of  unfortunate  manufacturers." 

In  the  following  December  Georgia  passed  reso- 
lutions concurring  with  those  adopted  by  the  South 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  29 

Carolina  Legislature  in  their  December  session  in 
1827,  in  relation  to  the  powers  of  the  general  gov- 
ernment and  State  rights. 

The  controversy  over  the  public  lands  served  to 
widen  the  breach  that  had  been  opened  by  the  tariff 
bugbear  between  the  South  and  North,  and  for  the 
first  time,  perhaps,  the  germinating  seed  of  seces- 
sion was  planted  in  the  hearts  and  minds  of  the 
Southern  people.  Their  three  great  staples  for  ex- 
port—  cotton,  tobacco  and  rice  —  "could  be  ex- 
changed for  foreign  products  only  upon  the  payment 
of  heavy  custom  duties."  Retired  from  the  confed- 
eracy, at  least  sundered  from  the  plutocracy  "  of 
the  North,  they  could  bask  in  the  sunshine  of  peace 
and  plenty." 

Mr.  Henry  V.  Poor,  the  eminent  writer  on  finance, 
has  said  that  "from  1828,  no  power  could  for  a  mo- 
ment withstand  the  tendency  which,  so  far  as  the 
Southern  States  were  concerned,  could  have  no 
other  end  but  the  overthrow  of  the  government  of 
the  United  States.  General  Jackson  himself  was 
the  Phaeton  that  drove  the  steeds.  He  had  that 
singular  mixture  of  cunning,  audacity  and  apparent 
frankness  always  most  effective  to  catch  the  popular 
ear,  to  which  he  added  boundless  professions  of  con- 
sideration for  the  welfare  of  the  poor,  whose  passions 
he  raised  to  the  highest  pitch  by  describing  the 
wrongs  they  suffered  from  paper  money  and  manu- 
facturing aristocrats.  The  only  appeal  at  the  time 
open  to  the  North  was  to  the  ultima  ratio,  which, 


3O    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

though  long  delayed,  in  the  end  rendered  full  jus- 
tice to  her  cause. 

General  Jackson  spoke  vaguely  of  the  tariff  in  his 
first  annual  address,  November  8,  1829,  but  was  less 
uncertain  regarding  his  pet  scheme  of  crushing  the 
Bank  of  the  United  States  by  discontinuing  its  char- 
ter, which  still  had  about  eight  years  to  run.  His 
chief  argument  was  to  the  effect  that  this  institution 
was  unconstitutional,  and  it  may  be  added  here  that 
eventually  he  accomplished  his  intention  to  destroy 
the  bank. 

The  tariff  was  again  "tinkered  with"  in  1832. 
Several  bills  were  introduced,  among  them  one  by 
John  Quincy  Adams,  chairman  of  the  Committee  of 
the  House,  on  Manufactures.  But  a  bill  submitted 
by  Mr.  McLane,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  after 
various  modifications,  finally  passed.  The  minimum 
system  was  entirely  abolished.  An  ad  valorem  duty 
of  fifty  per  cent  was  put  on  woollen  goods.  The 
duty  on  hemp  was  reduced  to  $40  a  ton  ;  flax  was 
placed  on  the  free  list.  Wool  under  eight  cents  a 
pound  was  admitted  free  of  duty.  It  was,  taken  all  in 
all,  a  protective  act,  and  bore  striking  similarities  to 
the  act  of  1824.  Modified  as  it  was  from  the  Abomi- 
nations Act  of  1828,  the  Tariff  of  1832  was  not  free 
from  the  fierce  strictures  of  the  South,  though  more 
than  twenty  members  of  the  House,  representing 
Southern  States,  voted  in  favor  of  it.  Before  the 
time  arrived  for  it  to  take  effect,  which  was  to  be 
after  March  i,  1833,  a  general  convention  was  held 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  3! 

in  South  Carolina,  whose  delegates  adopted  an  ordi- 
nance "to  nullify  certain  acts  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  purporting  to  be  laws  laying  duties 
and  imposts  on  the  importation  of  foreign  commodi- 
ties." It  is  a  curious  document  in  this  dawn  of 
the  twentieth  century,  to  read  and  ponder  over.  In 
stately  and  august  phraseology  it  repudiated  the 
Tariff  Acts  of  1828  and  1832,  declaring  them  unau- 
thorized by  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  null,  void  and  no  law,  nor  binding  upon  that 
State,  its  officers  or  citizens. 

In  conclusion  it  went  on  to  say : 

And  we,  the  people  of  South  Carolina,  to  the  end 
that  it  may  be  fully  understood  by  the  Government 
of  the  United  States,  and  the  people  of  the  co-States, 
that  we  are  determined  to  maintain  this,  our  ordi- 
nance and  declaration,  at  every  hazard,  do  further 
declare  that  we  will  not  submit  to  the  application  of 
force,  on  the  part  of  the  Federal  Government,  to 
reduce  this  State  to  obedience;  but  that  we  will  con- 
sider the  passage  by  Congress  of  any  act  authorizing 
the  employment  of  a  military  or  naval  force  against 
the  State  of  South  Carolina,  her  constituted  authori- 
ties or  citizens  ;  or  any  act  abolishing  or  closing  the 
ports  of  this  State,  or  any  of  them,  or  otherwise  ob- 
structing the  free  ingress  and  egress  of  vessels  to  and 
from  the  said  ports ;  or  any  other  acts  on  the  part  of 
the  Federal  Government,  to  coerce  the  State,  shut  up 
her  ports,  destroy  or  harass  her  commerce,  or  to  en- 
force the  acts  hereby  declared  null  and  void,  other- 


32    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

wise  than  through  the  civil  tribunals  of  the  country, 
as  inconsistent  with  the  longer  continuance  of  South 
Carolina  in  the  Union;  and  that  "the  people  of  this 
State  will  henceforth  hold  themselves  absolved  from 
all  further  obligation  to  maintain  or  preserve  their 
political  connection  with  the  people  of  the  other 
States,  and  will  forthwith  proceed  to  organize  a  sepa- 
rate Government,  and  do  all  other  acts  and  things 
which  sovereign  and  independent  States  may  of  right 
do." 

From  all  accounts  this  impetuous  little  common- 
wealth meant  business  too.  She  had  already  been 
making  extensive  preparations  to  back  up  what  she 
said  by  force  of  arms.  Though  she  had  taken  this 
bold  initiative,  South  Carolina  doubtless  felt  assured 
that  at  least  some  of  her  neighbors  would  follow 
suit  in  seceding,  so  she  played  her  little  game  of  brag 
and  bluff  with  amusing,  if  it  had  not  been  pathetic, 
impunity.  Her  favorite  historian,  William  Gilmore 
Simms,  has  said  that  (t  a  call  was  made  for  volunteers, 
even  out  of  the  limits  of  the  State.  It  was  under- 
stood that  more  than  fifty  thousand  men  had  volun- 
teered to  maintain  South  Carolina." 

This  ultimatum^  issued  November  24,  1832,  pro- 
vided that  from  and  after  the  ist  day  of  February, 
1833,  the  Tariff  Acts  of  May  19,  1828,  and  of  July 
14,  1832,  should  not  be  enforced  within  the  limits  of 
South  Carolina.  In  the  meantime,  Mr.  Clay  had 
been  overwhelmingly  defeated  by  General  Jackson 
for  the  Presidency,  and  he  saw  with  keen  humiliation 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  33 

that  his  great  ambition  to  create  a  permanent  pro- 
tective system  must  be  sacrificed.  The  ominous 
demands  of  the  "  solid  South  "  could  not  be  ignored 
without  exciting  a  civil  war.  Jackson,,  realizing  the 
exigencies  of  the  situation,  made  an  executive  feint 
of  defending  the  inviolability  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment. He  issued  a  grandiloquent  proclamation, 
urging  the  recalcitrant  States  to  behave  like  gentle- 
men and  stand  by  the  Constitution  and  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land,  which  elicited  such  violent  denuncia- 
tion from  the  South,  that  within  a  year  he  authorized 
the  publication  of  his  construction  of  the  Constitution, 
in  his  personal  organ,  the  Washington  Globe,  in  which 
his  views  were  constantly  modified  to  suit  Southern 
sentiment. 

Thus  the  die  was  cast.  On  the  25th  of  February 
Mr.  Clay's  Compromise  Bill  was  substituted  for  a  pre- 
vious bill  that  had  been  introduced  in  the  House. 
Speaking  in  favor  of  his  bill  Mr.  Clay  thus  defined 
his  position  :  "  I  have  been  represented  as  the  father 
of  this  system,  and  I  am  charged  with  an  unnatural 
abandonment  of  my  own  offspring.  I  have  never 
arrogated  to  myself  any  such  intimate  relation  to  it. 
I  have,  indeed,  cherished  it  with  parental  fondness, 
and  my  affection  is  undiminished.  But  in  what  con- 
dition do  I  find  this  child?  It  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
Philistines,  who  would  strangle  it.  I  fly  to  its  res- 
cue, to  snatch  it  from  their  custody,  and  to  place  it 
on  a  bed  of  security  and  repose  for  nine  years,  where 
it  may  grow  and  strengthen,  and  become  accept- 


34    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

able  to  the  whole  people.  I  behold  a  torch  about 
to  be  applied  to  a  favorite  edifice,  and  I  would 
save  it,  if  possible,  before  it  was  wrapped  in  flames, 
or  at  least  preserve  the  precious  furniture  which  it 
contains." 

Naturally  the  people  of  South  Carolina  were  jubi- 
lant over  the  fact  that  they  had  actually  succeeded 
in  bulldozing  the  United  States.  Assembling  for 
the  purpose  of  considering  what  action  to  take  with 
reference  to  the  Compromise  Act,  the  committee  of 
the  South  Carolina  convention  reported  among  other 
things  that  : 

"  We  cannot  be  insensible  to  the  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  the  united  efforts  of  the  whole  South, 
aided  by  other  States  having  interests  identified  with 
our  own,  in  bringing  about  the  late  adjustment  of 
the  tariff  ;  promising,  we  trust,  for  the  future,  that 
union  of  sentiment  and  conceit  in  action  which  are 
necessary  to  secure  the  rights  and  interests  of  the 
Southern  States.  On  the  whole,  in  whatever  aspect 
the  question  is  contemplated,  your  committee  find,  in 
the  late  modification  of  the  tariff,  cause  for  congratu- 
lation and  triumph.  If  we  have  not  yet  succeeded  in 
the  complete  establishment  of  the  great  principles  of 
free  trade  and  constitutional  liberty,  such  progress 
has  been  made  toward  the  accomplishment  of  the 
former  as  must  serve  to  rekindle  our  hopes,  and  to 
excite  us  to  fresh  exertion  in  the  glorious  work  of 
reforms  in  which  we  are  engaged." 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  35 

Then  the  convention  submitted  and  adopted  the 
following  condescending  ordinance  : 

"  Whereas,  The  Congress  of  the  United  States,  by 
an  a:t  recently  passed,  has  made  such  a  reduction 
and  modification  of  the  duties  of  foreign  imports  as 
amounted  substantially  to  an  ultimate  reduction  of 
the  duties  to  the  revenue  standard ;  and  that  no 
higher  duties  shall  be  laid  than  may  be  necessary  to 
defray  the  economical  expenditures  of  the  govern- 
ment ; 

"//  is,  therefore,  ordained  and  declared,  That  the 
ordinance  entitled  'an  ordinance  to  nullify  certain 
acts  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,'  purport- 
ing to  be  laws  laying  duties  on  the  importation  of 
foreign  commodities  and  all  acts  passed  in  pursuance 
thereof,  be  henceforth  deemed  and  held  to  have  no 
force  or  effect,  provided  that  the  act  entitled  '  an  act 
further  to  alter  and  amend  the  militia  laws  of  this 
State,'  passed  on  the  2oth  day  of  December,  1832, 
shall  remain  in  full  force." 

The  Compromise  Tariff  Act,  which  remained  in 
force  for  about  nine  years,  provided  for  a  sliding 
scale,  that  is  to  say,  all  twenty  per  centum  duties 
scheduled  in  the  bill  of  1832  were  to  be  gradually 
reduced  on  each  alternate  year  till  1842,  when  and 
thereafter  twenty  per  centum  on  the  home  valuation 
should  be  the  rate  on  all  these  goods.  It  was,  per- 
haps, a  wiser  political  than  economic  or  financial 
measure,  for  it  failed  to  meet  pressing  requirements, 
and  was  so  drafted  that  ad  valorem  duties  were  in- 


36    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

eluded.  It  came  to  be  known  generally  as  the 
"  horizontal  tariff."  Prof.  Taussig  says  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  that  act  "  was  the  result  of  an  agree- 
ment between  Clay  and  Calhoun,  the  leaders  of  the 
protectionists  and  free  traders,  while  it  secured  also 
the  support  of  Jackson."  This  statement  is  strength- 
ened by  the  fact  that  the  South  Carolina  nullifiers 
had  declared  that  such  a  horizontal  rate  was  the  least 
they  were  willing  to  accept. 

As  finally  passed,  Mr.  Clay's  bill  provided  that  : 
"  From  and  after  the  3ist  of  December,  1833,  in 
all  cases  where  the  duties  are  imposed  on  foreign 
imports  by  the  act  of  i4th  July,  1832,  or  by  any  other 
act  which  shall  exceed  twenty  per  cent  on  the  value 
thereof,  one-tenth  part  of  such  excess  shall  be  de- 
ducted;  from  and  after  the  3ist  of  December,  1855, 
1837  and  1839,  respectively,  a  further  deduction  of 
one-tenth  of  such  excess  shall  be  made  ;  and  from 
and  after  the  3ist  of  December,  1841,  a  further  re- 
duction of  one-half  of  the  remainder  of  such  excess ; 
and  from  and  after  the  3ist  of  December,  1842,  the 
residue  of  such  excess  shall  be  deducted.  So  much 
of  the  second  section  of  the  act  of  the  i4th  of  July, 
aforesaid,  as  fixes  the  rate  of  duty  on  all  milled  and 
fulled  cloth  known  by  the  name  of  plains,  kerseys  or 
Kendall  cottons,  of  which  wool  is  the  only  material, 
the  value  whereof  does  not  exceed  thirty-five  cents  a 
square  yard,  at  five  per  cent  ad  valorem,  is  repealed. 
And  said  articles  are  subjected  to  the  same  duty  as 
is  provided  for  other  manufactures  of  wool,  viz.,  fifty 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  37 

per  cent  ad  valorem,  and  this  duty  is  liable  to  the  de- 
ductions mentioned  above. 

"From  and  after  the  3ist  of  December,  1842,  all 
duties  upon  imports  shall  be  collected  in  ready 
money,  and  all  credit  abolished.  Said  duties  to  be 
assessed  upon  the  value  of  said  goods  at  the  port 
where  the  same  shall  be  entered." 

At  this  point,  we  might  profitably  digress  for  a 
moment  to  bring  to  the  readers'  attention  how  in- 
definite had  been  party  names  up  to  this  time.  The 
first  two  Presidents  of  the  United  States  were  com- 
monly known  as  Federalists.  Thomas  Jefferson, 
James  Madison,  James  Monroe  and  John  Quincy 
Adams  called  themselves  Republicans.  By  usage, 
writers  have  designated  Andrew  Jackson  a  Demo- 
crat. But  certain  it  is,  he  ran  both  times  for  the 
Presidency  as  a  Republican,  or  to  speak  literally,  as 
a  Jacksonian  ;  his  opponents  called  themselves  anti- 
Jacksonians.  In  1832  Martin  Van  Buren  ran  on  the 
Jackson  ticket  for  Vice-President  and  was  elected, 
and  it  was  reserved  for  Mr.  Van  Buren  to  draw  a 
party  line  between  Republicanism  and  Democracy. 
For  reasons  of  his  own,  he  perceived  that  it  would  be 
well  to  show  that  these  should  not  be  regarded  as 
synonymous  terms.  He  was  apprised  that  at  a 
Republican  convention,  assembled  in  Baltimore,  he 
had  been  selected  as  a  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency. In  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  this  notifi- 
cation, Van  Buren  wrote  :  "  I  cannot  but  regard  this 
spontaneous  expression  of  confidence  and  friendship 


38    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

from  the  delegated  Democracy  of  the  Union  as  lay- 
ing me  under  renewed  obligations  of  gratitude  to 
them,  and  of  fidelity  to  the  great  interests  for  whose 
advancement  they  were  assembled,"  etc.  During  the 
last  administration  of  Jackson,  the  word  Democracy, 
as  expressive  of  a  national  party,  sounded  like  sweet 
music  in  the  ears  of  many  men,  who  hitherto  had 
been  identified  with  old  Republican  principles.  When 
Van  Buren  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency  in  1835 
the  convention  passed  resolutions  to  the  effect  that 
the  Federal  Government  is  one  of  "  limited  powers? 
that  Congress  has  no  power  to  charter  a  United 
States  Bank;  that  "the  Constitution  does  not  confer 
upon  the  General  Government  the  power  to  com- 
mence and  carry  on  a  general  system  of  internal  im- 
provement," etc.,  and  finally,  with  reference  to  the 
tariff,  it  was  resolved:  "That  justice  and  sound 
policy  forbid  the  Federal  Government  to  foster  one 
branch  of  industry  to  the  detriment  of  another,  or  to 
cherish  the  interest  of  one  portion  to  the  injury  of 
another  portion  of  our  common  country." 

Like  his  predecessors,  Van  Buren  was  a  poseur  for 
all  sides,  in  order  to  secure  the  high  honor  he 
coveted.  In  the  North  he  was  supported  as  a 
Republican,  while  the  South  supported  him  as  the 
next  best  available  successor  to  Jackson.  A  noted 
orator,  John  P.  Kennedy,  has  given  in  a  political 
speech  this  account  of  the  genesis  of  the  Van  Buren 
scheme:  "When  Mr.  Van  Buren  succeeded  General 
Jackson,  the  party,  being  under  a  new  leader,  could 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  39 

no  longer  retain  the  name  '  Jacksonian/  by  which 
they  had  been  content  to  be  known,  and  there  was 
not  potency  enough  in  that  of  the  new  President  to 
allow  them  to  substitute  his.  The  Van  Buren  party 
could  not  hope  to  work  a  spell  by  that  designation. 
So,  sir,  at  his  (Mr.  Van  Buren's)  suggestion,  as  I  have 
reason  to  believe,  they  cunningly  enough  took  up  the 
then  appropriated  name  of  the  '  Democratic  Party,' 
without  the  slightest  reference  to  its  significance  in 
relation  to  their  principles,  —  even  with  a  conscious- 
ness of  the  absurd  masquerade  in  which  it  presented 
them  —  and  boldly  determined  to  outface  the  world's 
ridicule  upon  its  incongruity,  and  to  wear  it  in  spite 
of  the  derision  of  enemies  or  honest  shame  of  friends. 
It  was  a  cunning  part  of  this  device  to  cast  upon  the 
opponents  of  this  new  Democratic  party  the  corre- 
lative term,  which,  in  old  times,  had  existed  of  the 
Federal  party;  and  accordingly,  sir,  the  whole  line  of 
newspaper  batteries  by  which  the  new  party  was  de- 
feated, opened  upon  the  Whigs  an  incessant  fire,  in 
which  every  gun  was  loaded  with  the  charge  Fed- 
eralism From  that  period  we  are  to  date  the  birth 
of  this  extraordinary  nondescript,  the  new  Democ- 
racy, and  the  miracle  of  Mr.  Madison's  identification 
and  the  identification  of  his  friends  with  the  old 
Federal  party  of  1816." 

Eliminating,  if  need  be,  the  partisan  words  used 
by  Mr.  Kennedy,  we  still  have  a  true  enough  glimpse 
of  the  formal  organization  of  the  Democratic  party 
as  it  has  since  been  known  and  understood. 


4O    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

The  Compromise  Act  was  followed  by  an  increas- 
ing financial  depression,  which  culminated  in  the  tre- 
mendous panic  of  1837.  The  crash  was  general  and 
appalling,  but  the  blame  cannot  justly  be  placed  on 
the  tariff  as  the  sole  cause  of  this  widespread  finan- 
cial revulsion.  Other  cumulative  circumstances 
aided  not  a  little,  and  these  included  vexed  constitu- 
tional questions  which  agitated  the  public  mind. 

In  Colton's  Life  of  Henry  Clay,  volume  I,  are 
given  some  significant  details  as  to  the  extent  and 
nature  of  this  crash.  He  says:  "  In  some  parts  of 
Pennsylvania  the  people  were  obliged  to  divide  bank- 
notes into  halves,  quarters,  eighths  and  so  on,  and 
agree  from  necessity  to  use  them  as  money.  In 
Ohio,  with  all  her  abundance,  it  was  hard  to  get 
money  to  pay  taxes."  The  farmers  could  find  no 
markets  for  their  products,  which,  in  hundreds  upon 
hundreds  of  instances,  rotted  in  their  barns,  while  as 
many  others  were  dispossessed  by  the  sheriff.  Mr. 
Van  Buren,  believed  to  be  personally  in  favor  of 
protection,  was  publicly  neutral-minded  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  said  little  or  nothing  about  it,  one  way  or 
another. 

In  1840,  protection  was  condemned  and  free  trade 
practically  indorsed  by  the  Democratic  National  Con- 
vention. But  popular  opinion  was  again  drifting 
toward  protection;  and  in  1841,  William  H.  Harri- 
son succeeded  to  the  Presidency.  A  sturdy  Whig 
and  strong  protectionist,  he  died  a  month  after  his 
inauguration,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  Tyler, 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  4! 

also  a  protectionist,  but  of  a  less  decisive  type, 
owing  to  his  Southern  training  and  associations. 
The  Whig  majority  which  now  had  control  in  Con- 
gress soon  set  the  protectionist  ball  whirling.  They 
introduced  two  tariff  bills  successively,  which  Tyler 
promptly  vetoed,  on  account  of  the  distribution 
clause  that  each  contained.  The  Whigs  and  Tyler 
already  had  disagreed  as  to  the  distribution  among 
the  States  of  the  proceeds  of  the  public  lands.  The 
distribution  clause  was  omitted  from  the  third  bill 
presented,  which  he  signed,  and  which  went  into 
force  September  i,  1842.  It  was  largely  a  political 
measure,  though  it  was,  as  the  Whigs  represented  it 
to  be,  distinctively  protective.  The  high  rates,  how- 
ever, of  the  bill  of  1832  were  not  warranted.  The 
average  duties  on  all  imports  were  twenty-two  and 
three-fourths,  and  on  dutiable  goods  thirty-two  and 
one-half  per  centum.  The  general  effects  of  this 
tariff  throughout  the  larger  part  of  the  country 
were  remedial  and  encouraging.  Business  was  re- 
suscitated to  a  normal  condition,  farm  products 
were  in  demand,  prices  revealed  an  upward  ten- 
dency. Especially  were  the  manufacturing  interests 
commercially  invigorated.  But  this  golden  era  was 
doomed  to  a  short  life.  Another  political  expedient 
was  soon  to  replace  the  Tariff  Act  of  1842. 

The  Democratic  party  was  now  dominated  by  the 
slave  power  of  the  South.  As  had  become  the  cus- 
tom, the  Democratic  National  Convention,  in  1844, 
opposed  protection  and  indorsed  practical  free  trade, 


42    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

placing  James  K.  Polk  in  the  field  against  Henry 
Clay,  the  Whig  candidate.  Mr.  Polk  had  been  an 
out-and-out  free  trader  for  years,  but  he  knew  his 
election  could  scarcely  be  accomplished  unless  he 
secured  the  electoral  vote  of  Pennsylvania,  a  strong 
protectionist  State.  How  then  was  he  to  proceed? 
Mr.  Kane  of  Pennsylvania,  anxious  to  know  how 
Mr.  Polk  stood  on  the  Tariff  issue,  addressed  the 
latter  a  letter  of  inquiry.  Mr.  Polk  is  said  to  have 
been  engaged  forty  days  in  preparing  a  reply,  which 
would  convince  the  Pennsylvanians,  without  his  say- 
ing it  in  so  many  words,  that  he  was  a  protectionist. 
It  was,  in  its  way,  a  masterpiece  of  dissimulation 
and  qreated  the  desired  effect.  His  chances,  how- 
ever, were  reinforced  by  the  candidacy  for  the  Vice- 
Presidency  of  George  M.  Dallas  of  Pennsylvania,  a 
recognized  protectionist.  And  thus  State  local  pride 
was  awakened  by  the  battle-cry  of  "  Polk,  Dallas  and 
the  Tariff  of  1842."  The  section  on  which  this  fraud 
was  perpetrated  was  led  to  believe  that  Mr.  Polk 
was  "a  better  protectionist  than  Mr.  Clay,"  because 
the  latter  had  been  the  father  of  the  Compromise 
Act.  With  the  South  Mr.  Polk  dealt  quite  differently, 
or  at  least  with  its  leaders.  On  matters  relating  to 
slavery,  extension,  the  tariff,  etc.,  he  satisfied  them  that 
he  would  be  their  obedient  servant  to  command,  and 
so  he  proved  to  be.  The  South  trusted  him  and  he 
was  elected.  It  was  a  political  victory,  but  it  had  a 
far-reaching,  and,  in  the  main,  a  detrimental  effect 
upon  the  subsequent  tariff  legistion  of  the  country. 


OUR  TARIFF  AND  TARIFF  LEGISLATION.          43 

THE  TARIFF  OF   1846. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  protectionist  voters  for 
Mr.  Polk  realized  that  they  had  been  beautifully 
hoodwinked.  Mr.  Robert  J.  Walker  of  Mississippi 
became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  his  first 
annual  report,  made  under  date  of  December  3, 
1845,  indicated  the  attitude  which  the  party  of  the 
administration  had  determined  to  assume.  Mr. 
Walker  was  a  glib  talker  on  finance  and  had  won  a 
questionable  reputation  in  achieving  a  repudiation 
of  the  debts  of  the  State  of  Mississippi.  His  most 
exalted  aim  was  to  be  accepted  as  the  mouthpiece  of 
the  free  traders,  and,  there  being  no  abler  thinker  at 
the  time  to  compete  with  him  for  such  a  rank,  he 
was  allowed  to  constitute  himself  the  leading  advo- 
cate of  an  economical  system  that  was  to  be  wel- 
comed with  delight  at  the  South.  Walker's  report 
was  long  and  elaborate,  its  salient  assumption  being 
as  follows,  in  his  own  language :  u  We  have  more 
fertile  lands  than  any  other  nation ;  can  raise  a 
greater  variety  of  products,  and,  it  may  be  said, 
could  feed  and  clothe  the  people  of  nearly  all  the 
world.  Agriculture  is  our  chief  employment.  It  is 
best  adapted  to  our  situation.  We  can  raise  a  larger 
surplus  of  agricultural  products,  and  a  greater  variety 
than  almost  any  other  nation,  and  at  cheaper  rates. 
Remove  then  from  agriculture  all  our  restrictions, 
and  by  its  own  unfettered  power  it  will  break  down 
all  foreign  restrictions,  and,  ours  being  removed, 


44    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

would  feed  the  hungry  and  clothe  the  poor  of  our 
fellow  men,  through  all  the  densely  peopled  nations 
of  the  world." 

The  bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  Tariff  Act  of  1842 
was  submitted  in  1846,  and  after  a  strenuous  opposi- 
tion by  the  Whigs  in  Congress  was  carried  by  the 
casting  vote  of  George  M.  Dallas,  who  owed  his 
preferment  as  Vice-President  to  his  professed  adher- 
ence to  protection. 

According  to  one  writer,  "  the  victory  of  the  Anti- 
Corn  Law  League  in  England  in  1846  produced  a 
profound  impression  in  America.  The  notion  be- 
came common  that  the  path  of  prosperity  had  been 
thrown  open  to  us  in  the  repeal  of  the  English  im- 
port duties  on  our  grain."  But  he  admits  the  iron 
business  suffered,  because  the  reduction  through  the 
horizontal  system  to  thirty  per  cent  ad  valorem  gave 
the  foreigners  an  entrance  to  the  American  market, 
and  to  undersell  the  home  produce,  the  demand  in 
England  having  become  next  to  nothing,  owing  to 
the  great  crash  in  railroad  speculation  there. 

In  the  latter  part  of  July,  1846,  Daniel  Webster 
made  a  three  days'  speech,  one  of  his  grandest  oratori- 
cal efforts,  in  opposition  to  the  Walker  bill,  which, 
he  maintained,  narrowed  and  diminished  our  indus- 
tries, taxed  the  poor  man  and  the  laborer,  and  in 
short,  was  a  measure  for  the  relief  of  the  highest  and 
most  luxurious  classes  of  the  country.  "The  interest 
of  every  laboring  community,"  he  continued,  "re- 
quires diversity  of  occupations,  pursuits,  and  objects 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  45 

of  industry.  The  more  that  diversity  is  multiplied, 
even  extended,  the  better.  To  diversify  employment 
is  to  increase  employment  and  to  enhance  wages." 

"  And,  sir,  take  this  truth  ;  place  it  on  the  title- 
page  of  every  book  of  Political  Economy  intended 
for  the  use  of  the  United  States;  put  it  in  every 
farmer's  almanac ;  let  it  be  the  heading  of  the 
column  of  every  mechanic's  magazine ;  proclaim  it 
everywhere,  and  make  it  a  proverb,  that  where  there 
is  work  for  the  hands  of  men,  there  will  be  work  for 
their  teeth.  Where  there  is  employment  there  will 
be  bread.  It  is  a  great  blessing  to  be  poor,  to  have 
cheap  food,  but  greater  than  that,  prior  to  that  of 
still  higher  value,  is  the  blessing  of  being  able  to 
buy  food,  by  honest  and  respectable  employment. 
Employment  feeds  and  clothes  and  instructs.  Em- 
ployment gives  health,  sobriety,  and  morals.  Con- 
stant employment  and  well-paid  labor  produce,  in  a 
country  like  ours,  general  prosperity,  content,  and 
cheerfulness." 

But  the  votes  of  Western  members,  converted  for 
the  time  being  to  free-trade  ideas,  carried  the 
Walker  Tariff  Act,  which  discriminated  between 
goods  that  could  and '  could  not  be  produced  at 
home,  but  in  other  respects  it  reduced  the  duties 
down  to  about  the  standard  of  the  "Compromise" 
of  1833.  On  all  kinds  of  imports  it  provided  for  ad 
valorem  duties. 

For  a  number  of  years  adventitious  causes  served 
to  increase  the  prosperity  of  the  country  under  the 


46    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Tariff  of  1846,  which  remained  unchanged  until 
1857.  These  causes  will  be  referred  to  further 
along  in  the  chapter  dealing  with  Protection.  The 
period  between  1846  and  1860  is  pointed  to  with 
great  pride  by  free  traders  as  one  of  unexampled 
prosperity,  arguing  that  it  was  the  direct  sequence 
•of  the  Walker  Tariff.  It,  however,  did  not  possess 
the  staying  powers  that  should  belong  to  a  system 
alleged  to  be  so  perfect  in  its  operations.  They  con- 
cede that  the  revenue  became  redundant.  Prof.  Ar- 
thur Latham,  in  his  Elements  of  Political  Economy, 
agrees  that  it  was  too  productive.  "  The  revenue 
rose  beyond  the  needs  of  the  Government.  The 
surplus  in  the  treasury  accumulated,  and  large  sums 
were  expended  in  buying  up  bonds  not  yet  due  at  a 
high  premium,  for  the  sake  of  emptying  the  treas- 
ury. Under  these  circumstances,  our  eighth  impor- 
tant tariff,  the  '  Tariff  ol  1857,'  was  passed.  It  low- 
ered the  duties  about  one-quarter,  and  very  justly 
applied  remissions  to  raw  materials  of  manufactures. 
The  free  list  was  also  enlarged.  The  West  did  not 
like  the  lessened  duties  on  wool,  hemp,  and  lead, 
produced  there,  and  declaimed  against  the  '  inci- 
dental protection '  accorded  to  Eastern  manufac- 
tures through  the  free  list  and  lower  duties  on  mate- 
rials. *  *  *  Though  the  National  Government 
had  nothing  now  to  do  with  banking  and  paper 
money,  the  States  had  multiplied  banks,  and  the 
banks  had  multiplied  bills,  so  that  the  inevitable 
crash  came  in  the  autumn,  the  imports  of  course 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  47 

diminished,  and  the  revenue  fell  off.  It  recovered 
somewhat  the  next  year ;  but  political  troubles  be- 
gan in  1860,  the  expenses  of  the  Government  in- 
creased, and  there  was  a  deficit.  Duties  on  the 
whole  imports  for  the  fifteen  years,  1846-1861,  aver- 
aged seventeen  and  three-fourths,  and  on  dutiable 
goods  twenty-two  and  three-fourths  per  centum." 

THE  WAR  TARIFF. 

In  1860,  South  Carolina  adopted  her  ordinance  of 
secession,  and  by  February  i,  1861,  she  was  joined  by 
six  other  Southern  States,  with  still  four  more  soon  to 
follow.  This  revolt  was  not  instigated  on  the  spur 
of  the  moment,  but  was  the  pricking  of  the  gigantic 
bubble  that  had  been  in  the  course  of  inflation  for 
many  years.  The  eve  of  that  inevitable  and  "irre- 
pressible conflict,"  which  Seward  and  other  discern- 
ing statesmen  had  predicted,  was  fast  approaching. 
The  treasury  was  depleted,  and  there  was  no  time  but 
for  quick  and  effective  action.  The  advent  of  Repub- 
lican power  made  possible  the  passage  of  the  Tariff 
Act  of  March  2,  1861,  which  was  in  itself  but  a 
measure  of  expediency.  By  it,  specific  superseded  ad 
valorem  duties,  and  these  were  amended  and  in- 
creased in  the  extra  session,  August  i,  1861,  and 
again  necessary  modifications  were  made  in  the  next 
regular  session  in  December  following.  And  from 
that  time  on  throughout  the  desperate  struggle, 
which  has  no  counterpart  in  all  history,  until  1865 
tariff  legislation  was  enacted  at  every  session  of 


48    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Congress.  But  the  so-called  war  tariff  was  only  one 
factor  in  the  midst  of  this  colossal  upheaval.  Ex- 
cise taxation,  specific  taxes  on  certain  manufactures, 
licenses,  the  income  tax,  etc.,  all  these  vigorous  meas- 
ures were  resorted  to,  to  raise  revenue,  and  then  at 
the  close  of  the  war  we  had  on  our  hands  a  white 
elephant  in  the  shape  of  a  public  debt  amounting  to 
$2,844,649,626,  nearly  all  of  it  unpaid  war  bills,  "  an 
average  expenditure  of  over  one  thousand  lives  and 
$2,000,000  a  day,  for  four  years  in  succession."  The 
Tariff  Act  of  July  i,  1862,  had  for  its  primary  object 
a  revision  of  the  tariff  on  foreign  imports,  as  Mr. 
Morrill  stated  in  the  House,  "so  far  as  it  may  be 
seriously  disturbed  by  any  internal  duties,  and  to 
make  proper  reparation  .  If  we  bleed 

manufactures,  we  must  see  to  it  that  the  proper 
tonic  is  administered  at  the  same  time." 

On  June  30,  1864,  a  sort  of  triple  measure  was 
passed,  which  was  the  crowning  act  of  financial  legis- 
lation during  the  war.  It  provided  for  an  extension 
of  the  internal  tax  system,  a  corresponding  increase 
of  the  duties  on  imports,  and,  lastly,  authorized  a 
loan  of  $400,000,000.  Mr.  Morrill  had  charge  of  the 
Tariff  Act  of  1864,  and  he  had  been  interested  in  all 
previous  ones  since  1861.  It  made  the  average  rate  on 
dutiable  commodities  forty-seven  and  six-tenths  per 
cent,  and  for  twenty  years  it  remained  the  basis  of  the 
system  of  import  duties.  All  provisions  of  the  Morrill 
Act  of  i86i,and  of  the  Tariff  Act  of  1862,  not  ex- 
pressly changed  by  it,  were  left  in  force.  "  But,"  says 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  49 

Taussig,  "  it  affected  so  completely  and  with  so 
few  exceptions  the  whole  range  of  import  duties,  and 
especially  the  protective  duties,  that  it  was  practi- 
cally a  new  general  tariff." 

Of  course,  after  so  long  and  enervating  a  war,  how 
could  there  be  much  else  but  chaos  and  financial  con- 
fusion ?  The  enormous  floating  debt  must  be 
funded,  internal  taxes  reformed,  fiat  money  driven 
out  of  circulation,  and  other  similarly  vexatious  mat. 
ters  adjusted.  Doubtless  the  Government  was  a  lit- 
tle slow  in  getting  at  the  question  of  lowering  the 
import  duties,  but  Congress  was  too  deeply  engrossed 
in  the  overshadowing  problems  of  reconstruction  to 
bother  itself  with  the  comparatively  few  demands  of 
the  people  for  a  restoration  of  the  free  trade  regime. 
Many  unsuccessful  tariff  bills  were  proposed,  but  war 
duties  were  retained,  as  if  by  the  common  consent  of 
the  majority  of  the  people.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
many  material  advantages  to  the  country  were  the 
outgrowth  of  the  war.  Permanent  and  magnificent 
industries  were  created  for  the  first  time,  many  new 
avenues  of  employment  opened  to  our  wage-earners, 
and  these  never  in  the  world  could  have  resulted 
under  a  free-trade  system  while  so  stupendous  a  war 
as  the  Rebellion  was  being  prosecuted. 

Several  tariff  bills  were  proposed  in  1867,  among 
them  one  drafted  by  Mr.  David  A.  Wells,  then 
Special  Commissioner  of  the  Revenue.  Failing  to 
obtain  the  two-thirds  majority  necessary  it  did  not 
pass.  But  an  important  amendment  to  the  Tariff  of 
4 


5O    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

1861  was  adopted  March,  1867,  by  which  duties  on 
wool  were  increased  to  ten  and  twelve  cents  per 
pound.  Ad  valorem  duties  were  also  raised  to  ten 
and  eleven  per  cent  according  to  quality. 

The  act  of  1870  was  in  some  degree  a  concession 
to  the  demand  for  reduced  taxation  and  tariff  reform. 
Many  articles  in  the  nature  of  luxuries  were  placed 
on  the  free  list,  while  the  duties  on  others,  such  as 
sugar,  coffee,  tea,  wines,  and  spices  were  lowered. 
The  duty  on  pig-iron  was  reduced  $2  a  ton.  But 
the  duties  on  marble,  on  nickel,  and  on  various  other 
articles  were  considerably  augmented.  A  notable 
increase  of  duties  was  laid  by  Congress  on  steel  rails, 
amounting  to  $28  a  ton,  and  also  on  ingots. 

After  a  protracted  wrangle  in  both  Houses  a  bill 
was  passed  in  1872,  giving  a  uniform  reduction  of  ten 
per  cent  on  all  the  great  protective  industries,  such 
as  iron,  steel,  paper,  glass,  leather,  cotton,  and  wool. 
Some  raw  materials  were  admitted  free  of  duty,  and 
the  duties  on  such  necessities  as  salt  and  coal  were 
materially  lowered.  At  the  time,  Mr.  John  L.  Hayes, 
for  many  years  Secretary  of  the  Wool  Manufacturers' 
Association,  referred  to  this  tariff  as  "  reducing  duties 
$53,000,000  and  yet  leaving  the  great  industries  al- 
most intact." 

In  the  following  year  came  the  financial  crash - 
the  Black  Friday.      But  this  panic  is  not  regarded  by 
the    highest   authorities    in   political   and    economic 
science  as   the  result  of  the   tariff.      Its  advent  was 
due  rather  to  external  causes,  among  the  most  danger- 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  51 

ous  of  which,  perhaps,  was  the  expansion  of  the  cur- 
rency and  of  credits.  A  repeal  of  the  reduction  of 
duties  made  in  1872  was  passed  in  1875  as  a  necessary 
measure  to  increase  the  depleted  revenue.  Duties 
were  put  back  to  the  standard  of  three  years  before. 
During  the  years  intervening  to  1883,  several 
attempts  were  made  at  so-called  reform  of  the  tariff, 
which  were  of  minor  consequence.  The  Tariff  Act 
of  1883  reduced  the  figures  on  most  woollens,  but  on 
certain  classes  of  woollens,  as,  for  instance,  dress 
goods  made  entirely  of  wool,  the  duties  were  ad- 
vanced. A  nominal  reduction  was  made  on  the 
common  grades  of  cotton  goods,  but  on  laces,  insert- 
ings,  embroideries,  trimmings,  etc.,  made  of  cotton, 
the  duty  was  increased  five  per  cent  over  the  old  rate 
that  on  this  class  of  commodities  had  obtained  since 
1 86 1.  There  was  a  slight  reduction  of  duties  on 
steel  ingots,  bars,  sheets  and  coils,  copper,  and  marble. 
Many  agricultural  products  were  left  at  their  former 
rate.  It  was  a  peculiar  act,  whose  object  has  been 
defined  as  protection  through  reduction.  It  found  its 
excuse,  if  it  could  have  any,  in  being  something  like 
a  sop  to  public  sentiment.  The  Democratic  National 
Convention  in  1880  had  passed  resolutions  in  favor  of 
"  a  tariff  for  revenue  only,"  and  the  policy  of  that 
party  was  as  emphatically  as  ever  committed  to  free 
trade. 

The  Morrison  bill,  fought  over  in  1884,  was  de- 
feated by  a  narrow  majority  in  the  House  of  only 
four  votes.  The  leading  English  newspapers  at  that 


52    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

time  candidly  deplored  the  defeat  of  this  measure, 
and  admitted  that  had  it  passed  it  would  have  been 
worth  $500,000,000  per  annum  to  British  manufac- 
turers. Again  in  1888  Mr.  Mills  of  Texas,  as  chair- 
man of  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  intro- 
duced his  famous  free-trade  bill,  as  he  said,  "  in  re- 
sponse to  the  recommendations  of  Mr.  Cleveland." 
It  managed  to  squeeze  through  the  House,  but  it  was 
promptly  laid  to  its  long  rest  in  the  Republican 
Senate. 

And  this  brings  us  to  the  McKinley  Tariff,  which 
became  the  law  of  the  land  in  October,  1890.  Its 
passage  created  a  more  general  interest  in  the  tariff 
question  than  any  other  that  has  gone  on  our  statute 
books,  and  to-day  there  is  no  livelier,  more  complex 
or  absorbing  problem  before  the  people  of  the  United 
States.  That  it  has  been  rashly  vilified  by  blind 
partisans  every  fair-minded  citizen  knows,  while  on 
the  other  hand,  it  would  be  foolish  to  give  an  ex- 
aggerated estimate  of  its  virtues.  What  are  its  main 
features  ?  First,  it  made  a  distinct  change  in  the 
wool  and  woollen  schedule.  The  duties  on  clothing 
wool  were  raised  one  cent  per  pound  ;  on  combing 
wool  they  were  increased  two  cents  per  pound  over 
the  Tariff  of  1883.  On  carpet-wool  ad  valorem  duties, 
ranging  from  thirty-two  to  fifty  per  cent,  were 
substituted  for  specific  duties.  Varying  rates  on 
woollen  cloths,  according  to  their  value,  were  ad- 
vanced. If  worth  30  cents  or  less  per  pound,  33 
cents  per  pound,  plus  forty  per  cent ;  if  worth  between 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  53 

30  and  40  cents  .per  pound,  38^  cents  per  pound,  plus 
forty  per  cent ;  if  worth  more  than  40  cents  per 
pound,  44  cents  per  pound,  plus  fifty  per  cent.  A 
still  higher  average  of  duties  was  placed  on  ready- 
made  clothing.  This  new  classification  augmented 
the  duties  on  dress-goods,  and  without  doubt  to  the 
benefit  of  the  domestic  manufacturer.  Knit  goods 
and  underwear  were  dutied  higher ;  likewise  linens 
of  the  better  grade.  With  some  articles,  like  plush, 
"  a  complicated  scheme  of  duties  was  adopted,  partly 
specific  and  partly  ad  valorem,  and  varying  with  the 
value  of  the  goods." 

The  McKinley  Act  is  a  reminder  of  the  act  of 
1828  in  its  "great  development  of  the  methods  of 
minimum  valuations  and  minimum  duties."  And  it 
is  urged  that  the  pursuance  of  this  method  is  open 
to  more  than  one  valid  objection.  But  no  tariff  act 
can  please  everybody,  and  we  may  be  reasonably 
certain  that  absolutely  permanent  tariff  laws  in  this 
Republic  will  never  be  established, 

It  is  true  that  the  duties  on  some  agricultural 
products,  such  as  wheat,  Indian  corn,  eggs,  potatoes, 
barley  and  on  textile  materials  like  hemp  and  flax, 
have  been  changed  by  the  McKinley  Act.  At  the 
same  time  it  has  accomplished  the  remission  of  the 
duty  on  sugar  and  admitted  raw  sugar  free,  retain- 
ing the  duty  of  one-half  cent  per  pound  on  refined 
sugar.  Furthermore,  a  bounty  at  the  rate  of  two 
cents  a  pound  is  given  on  all  domestic  sugar  for 
nearly  a  dozen  years  to  come.  Reciprocity  provis- 


54    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

ions  accompanying  the  bill,  giving  the  President 
power  "  to  impose  by  proclamation  certain  duties  on 
sugar,  molasses,  tea,  coffee  and  hides,  if  he  considers 
that  any  country  exporting  these  commodities  to  the 
United  States  imposes  duties  or  other  exactions  on 
the  agricultural  or  other  products  of  the  United 
States,  which,  in  view  of  the  free  introduction  of 
sugar,  molasses,  tea,  coffee  and  hides  into  the  United 
States,  he  may  deem  to  be  reciprocally  unjust  or  un- 
reasonable." 

These  reciprocity  treaties  thus  far  have  proven 
singularly  advantageous  to  the  United  States,  and 
there  can  be  no  question  as  to  their  superiority  over 
the  old-fashioned  mode  of  reciprocity. 

The  brief  historical  survey  here  given  of  tariff  leg- 
islation in  this  country  might  or  might  not  provide 
material  out  of  which  inductive  reasoning  would  go 
too  far.  The  protective  periods,  as  they  may  be 
called,  do  not  prove  in  any  conclusive  manner  that  a 
high  tariff  is  always  essential  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
country  any  more  than  it  can  be  irrefutably  demon- 
strated that  free-trade  ideals — under  which  the  country 
has  happened  to  flourish  temporarily — constitute  the 
only  proper  system  to  maintain.  Manifold  condi- 
tions may  render  the  one  more  acceptable  than  the 
other  at  a  given  time  to  the  whole  people.  We  can- 
not decide  in  any  positive  fashion  what  might  have 
been  had  such  and  such  tariff  legislation  been  enacted 
in  a  certain  year  instead  of  that  which  was  enacted. 
We  can  only  reason  by  analogy  and  argue  upon  the 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  55 

illusive  foundation  of  incidents  and  statistics.  There 
is  a  popular  belief  to  the  effect  that  any  thing  can  be 
proven  by  figures,  but  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
figures  can  be  made  to  lie,  even  if  in  themselves  they 
are  not  guilty  of  that  vice. 

Throughout  this  long  contention  the  sharpest 
differences  of  opinion  have  hinged  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  what  articles  shall  be  taxed,  In  this  connec- 
tion we  cannot  present  a  more  clean-cut  elucidation 
than  by  a  single,  but  somewhat  extended  paragraph, 
from  the  pages  of  Taussig's  exhaustive  Tariff  His- 
tory of  the  United  States.  It  is  worded  as  follows: 
"The  difference  in  effect  between  duties  on  articles 
like  tea  and  coffee  on  the  one  hand,  and  articles  like 
iron  and  wool  on  the  other,  is  easily  stated.  Both 
are  indirect  taxes,  reaching  the  consumer  in  the 
shape  of  higher  prices  on  the  commodities  he  uses. 
But  when  a  duty  is  imposed  on  an  article  like  tea 
and  coffee,  the  whole  increase  in  price  to  the  con- 
sumer is  offset  by  the  same  amount  of  revenue 
received  by  the  Government ;  whereas,  when  a  duty 
is  imposed  on  an  article,  like  iron  or  wool,  the  effect 
is  different.  In  the  latter  case,  also,  the  commodity 
is  increased  in  price  to  the  consumer,  and  he  is 
thereby  taxed.  So  far  as  the  articles  continue  to  be 
imported,  the  increased  price,  as  in  the  case  of  tea 
and  coffee,  represents  revenue  received  by  the  Gov- 
ernment. But  when  the  consumer  buys  and  uses  an 
article  of  this  kind  made  at  home,  he  must  pay  an 
increased  price  or  tax,  quite  as  much  as  when  he 


56    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

buys  the  imported  article,  with  the  difference  that 
the  tax  is  not  paid  to  the  Government,  but  to 
the  home  producer.  The  extra  price  so  received  by 
the  home  producer  does  not  necessarily  or,  indeed, 
usually,  yield  him  exceptionally  high  profits.  It  is 
true  that  in  some  cases  of  more  or  less  perfect  mon- 
opoly he  may  make,  permanently  or  for  a  long  time, 
exceptionally  high  profits  ;  and  in  these  cases  there 
is  ground  for  saying  that  the  protective  system  has 
the  effect  of  'robbing  Peter  to  pay  Paul.'  But  in 
the  majority  of  cases,  where  the  conditions  of  mon- 
opoly do  not  exist,  the  home  producer,  while  getting 
a  higher  price,  because  of  the  duty,  does  not  make 
correspondingly  high  profits.  It  may  cost  more,  for 
one  reason  or  another,  to  make  the  article  at  home 
than  it  costs  to  make  it  abroad,  and  the  duty  simply 
seems  to  offset  this  disadvantage  of  the  domestic 
producer.  In  not  a  few  cases,  while  it  may  cost 
more  to  make  the  article  at  home  than  abroad,  the 
duty  is  greater  than  the  difference  it  cost.  Domes- 
tic competition  then  will  cause  the  price  at  home  to 
fall  to  a  point  less  than  the  foreign  price  plus  the 
duty;  importation  will  cease;  and  yet  a  virtual  tax 
will  still  be  levied  in  the  shape  of  prices  higher  than 
those  which  would  obtain  if  there  were  no  duty. 
Whatever  be  the  details  for  the  working  of  a  pro- 
tective duty,  it  is  prima  facie  less  desirable  than  a 
revenue  duty,  on  the  simple  ground  that  the  tax 
seems  not  to  yield  revenue,  but  to  offset  the  greater 
cost  of  making  the  commodity  at  home.  Whether 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  57 

the  stimulus  to  domestic  production  brings  other 
benefits  to  the  community,  sufficient  to  compensate 
for  this  disadvantage  of  protective  duties,  involves 
the  whole  problem  of  the  operation  of  international 
trade  ;  indeed,  the  discussion  spreads  over  the  entire 
range  of  economic  principles,  and  can  be  settled  only 
by  reasoning  in  which  all  those  principles  are  taken 
into  account." 

Another  point  of  disagreement  among  financiers 
and  economists  --  and  the  politicians  for  half  a  cen- 
tury have  made  it  a  convenient  bone  to  snarl  about 
—  is,  what  kind  of  duties  is  wisest  and  most  practi- 
cal ?  Some  very  astute  statesmen  have  insisted  that 
specific  duties  deserve  to  be  called  fiscal  duties,  and 
that  ad  valorem  duties  should  be  designated  as  eco- 
nomical duties.  Now  it  has  been  the  practice  that 
on  all  goods  of  a  given  kind,  without  reference  either 
to  their  fineness  or  value,  specific  duties  exact  a  stated 
amount  for  each  pound,  yard's  length  or  square 
foot.  Of  one  hundred  and  sixty  enumerated  articles 
subject  to  a  tax  in  1/92,  ad  valorem  duties  were  im- 
posed on  one  hundred  and  two  of  them,  the  remain- 
der being  concerned  with  specific  duties.  For  more 
than  a  generation  after  i  792  ad  valorem  duties  rela- 
tively decreased.  From  the  act  of  1846  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Civil  War  specific  duties  were  kept  in 
the  background.  Both  doctrinaire  and  practical  pro- 
tectionists have  usually  favored  specific  duties,  while 
the  preponderating  number  of  free  traders  have  ever 
raised  their  voices  in  behalf  of  ad  valorem  duties. 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 


No.  OF 

DUTIES. 

YEARS. 

Specific. 

Ad  zialorem. 

IO2 

Q2 

!8i6  

121 

Q2 

1824  

l82 

121 

1828  ,  

2O2 

111 

i  g^a  

•21': 

326 

JLJ 

x86i  

2^7 

ca8 

!87o  '.  

^6< 

AC.C 

Robert  J.  Walker,  to  whom  allusion  has  been 
made,  in  1845,  'in  ^\s  report  as  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  earnestly  declared  that  ad  valorem  duties 
were  the  only  proper  duties.  During  the  discussion 
in  Congress  of  Mr.  Walker's  report,  a  representative 
averred  that  specific  duties  had  been  adopted  by  the 
Government,  not  because  ad  valorem  duties  had  been 
found  wanting,  but  in  order  to  conceal  the  amount  of 
the  duty  from  the  public.  A  commentator  on  the 
above  has  attempted  to  substantiate  it  by  remarking 
that  wherever  ad  valorem  and  specific  duties  have 
been  employed  in  the  same  tariff,  the  latter  have 
been  generally  higher  than  the  former.  In  illustra- 
tion he  cites  the  following:  In  1792  the  average  ad 
valorem  duty  was  eleven  and  one-half  per  cent ;  while 
cotton  was  taxed  three  cents  per  pound,  or  at  the 
then  prevailing  price,  thirteen  per  cent  ad  valorem  ; 
while  coal  was  taxed  four  and  one-half  cents  per 
bushel,  equal  to  twenty  per  cent  ad  valorem.  Again 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  59 

he  says  :  "  In  1827  iron  in  bars  paid  $18  per  ton,  or 
thirty-four  and  one-half  percent,  rolled  iron  a  specific 
duty  equal  to  forty  and  six-tenths  per  cent,  and  pig- 
iron  a  duty  equal  to  thirty  per  cent,  while  the  average 
ad  valorem  duty  amounted  to  twenty-five  and  five- 
tenths  per  cent."  Then  goes  on  the  same  authority 
to  say  that  American  protectionists  have  favored 
specific  duties,  because  just  at  the  time  when,  accord- 
ing to  their  ideas,  the  duties  ought  to  be  relatively 
highest,  ?'.  e.,  when  prices  rule  low,  duties  ad  valorem 
are  the  lowest,  while  specific  duties  grow  relatively 
higher  the  lower  the  prices  get.  In  other  words,  he 
means  that  in  case  some  article  drops  in  price,  on 
which  both  ad  valorem  and  specific  duties  are  laid 
after  its  depreciation  in  value,  the  home  producer 
will  be  protected  at  an  accelerated  per  cent  over  the 
mere  ad  valorem  per  cent. 

Who  can  deny  that  the  general  run  of  European 
protectionists  have  not  demanded  and  do  not  de- 
mand ad  valorem  duties.  Why  ?  Exactly  because, 
as  our  above-referred-to  commentator  says,  specific 
duties  favor  the  coarser  kinds  of  goods  more  than 
the  finer  qualities,  and  thus  direct  the  investment  of 
capital  to  the  manufacturer  of  the  poorer  grades  of 
commodities.  Which  then  is  the  preferable  kind  ? 
Ad  valor  em  seems  the  best,  so  claim  certain  writers 
on  the  subject,  because  of  their  inherent  fairness,  and 
in  the  opinion  of  these  gentlemen  probably  no  other 
kind  would  ever  have  been  imposed  had  it  not  been 
for  the  many  difficulties  in  the  way  of  collecting  ad 


60    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

valorem  duties,  such  as  the  frequent  impossibility 
of  arriving  at  a  proper  valuation  of  the  goods  to  be 
taxed.  Invoices  are  often  objected  to  by  custom 
officers,  who  suspect  that  the  prices  of  commodities 
have  been  placed  too  low,  and  they  thereupon  insti- 
tute an  appraisement.  Should  the  appraised  value 
be  ten  per  cent  higher  than  the  invoice  value,  they 
must  collect,  in  addition  to  the  tax  on  the  appraised 
value,  an  additional  value  of  twenty  per  cent.  In- 
tentional fraud  of  course  is  punishable  by  fine  or 
imprisonment,  or  both. 

The  United  States  Government  has  lost  many 
millions  of  dollars  through  undervaluation.  Especi- 
ally has  this  been  true  of  silk  goods.  The  importer 
has  too  often  been  at  the  mercy  of  Uncle  Sam's 
hirelings.  Ad  valor  em  duties,  however,  prevent  specu- 
lation on  the  part  of  the  importer,  who  would  like  to 
take  advantage  of  quick  fluctuations  of  the  market  in 
his  favor.  The  merchant  having  purchased  a  stock 
of  goods  at  favorable  prices  to  himself,  must  pay  just 
as  much  duty  as  if  he  had  paid  the  usual  price,  and 
thus  he  is  deprived  of  a  part  of  his  speculative  gain. 
There  is  little  difficulty  in  our  ports  in  administering 
specific  duties,  but  a  considerable  staff  of  officials  is 
requisite  for  the  performance  of  a  like  function  with 
reference  to  ad  valorem  duties. 

Customs  duties  have  been  defined  as  taxes  which 
are  collected  from  one  set  of  persons  with  the  ex- 
pectation that  they  will  shift  the  burden  of  taxation 
to  another  class.  They  share  all  the  advantages  and 


OUR    TARIFF    AXD    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  6 1 

* 

disadvantages  of  indirect  taxes.  If  they  are  levied 
solely  on  articles  not  produced  within  the  country, 
they  exercise  but  little  influence  on  the  course  of 
trade,  unless  they  are  so  high  as  to  materially  lessen 
the  consumption  or  as  to  lead  to  smuggling;  if  laid 
on  articles  of  prime  necessity,  they  increase  the  ex- 
pense of  living  and  bear  harder  on  the  poorer  classes 
of  the  community  than  on  the  wealthy;  if  levied  on 
articles  needed  in  manufacturing,  they  increase  the 
price  of  the  manufactured  commodity  by  more  than 
the  amount  of  the  duty,  for  the  manufacturer  must 
charge  interest  on  the  sum  he  has  advanced  for  the 
duty  until  he  can  get  his  commodity  ready  for  mar- 
ket; if  levied  on  goods  similar  to  those  manufactured 
in  the  country,  it  becomes  a  protective  duty. 

Robert  Ellis  Thompson,  in  one  of  his  lectures  in 
Harvard  University  in  1885,  said:  "A  tariff  for 
revenue  only  either  levies  duties  exclusively  on 
articles  not  made  at  home,  or  it  compensates  dut'ies 
on  articles  made  at  home  by  equal  excise  duties  on 
the  home  production.  A  protective  tariff  selects  for 
duty  those  articles  which  come  into  competition  with 
home-made  articles,  and  it  taxes  these  on  the  principle 
that  their  consumption  should  be  discouraged  and 
that  of  the  home-made  articles  encouraged.  Its  pur- 
pose is  to  divert  the  capital  of  the  country  into  a 
channel  in  which  it  otherwise  would  not  or  could  not 
flow,  or  would  flow  less  freely."  Mr.  Thompson, 
with  all  the  confidence  of  a  radical,  added  that  the 
"  protectionist  plan  is  to  extend  our  manufactures 


62    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

until  we  make  at  home  $258,000,000  worth  of  goods 
we  now  import,  and  feed  the  workmen  we  employ  in 
making  them  with  the  surplus  of  our  agriculture  we 
now  have  to  export.  To  effect  that  there  must  be 
persistence  in  our  tariff  policy." 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  discuss  here  whether  the 
workingman  has  come  fully  into  the  possession  of  his 
own,  but  he  certainly  should  find  some  consolation 
in  comparing  his  lot  to  that  of  his  own  class  in  the 
old  days.  What  was  the  condition  of  labor  a 
century  ago?  In  1795  skilled  laborers,  such  as  type- 
setters, earned  $i  a  day  in  Philadelphia.  At  Albany 
laborers,  in  abundance  could  be  had  for  three  (York) 
shillings  a  day.  At  Richmond,  wages  ranged  from 
is.  6d.  to  is.  iod.,  except  in  harvest  time  when  from 
2s.  4d.  to,  33.  iod.  were  paid  in  Virginia,  currency 
worth  $3.33  to  the  pound.  In  New  York  city,  hatters 
in  i  794  could  earn  as  much  as  $2  a  day  and  carpen- 
ters iod.  an  hour.  Sailors  were  paid  $24  a  month. 
In  1797  Rhode  Island  farm  hands  earned  $3  a 
month,  $5  a  month  being  paid  to  those  who  obtained 
employment  for  the  eight  busy  months  of  the  farmer's 
year.  Rugged  lads  in  Connecticut  toiled  for  $i  a 
month  from  sunrise  till  after  dark. 

And  correspondingly  produce  brought  wretched 
prices.  Eight  cents  a  pound  was  all  butter  would 
bring.  Says  a  veracious  chronicler :  "  Women 
picked  the  wool  off  the  bushes  and  briars  where  the 
sheep  had  left  it,  and  spun  it  into  mittens  to  earn  $i 
a  year  by  this  toilsome  business.  They  hired  out  as 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  63 

help  for  25  cents  a  month  and  their  board.  By  a 
day's  hard  work  at  the  spinning  wheel  a  woman  and 
girl  together  could  earn  12  cents.  As  late  as  1821 
the  best  farm  hands  could  be  had  for  25  cents  a  day, 
or  twice  as  much  in  mowing  time." 

Imagine  a  thrifty  farmer's  wife  now  slaving  in  that 
manner.  These  are  the  lessons  we  read  of  degraded 
labor.  Behold  what  a  splendid  change  has  been 
wrought  in  the  industrial  welfare  of  the  nation  since 
those  soul-trying  times. 

In  1820  thirteen  and  seven-tenths  per  cent  of  the 
working  population  were  engaged  in  manufactures 
and  the  mechanic  arts;  in  1840  seventeen  and  one- 
tenth  per  cent.  In  New  England  twenty-one  per 
cent  were  so  engaged  in  1820;  thirty  and  two-tenths 
per  cent  in  1840;  in  the  Middle  States  twenty-two 
and  six-tenths  per  cent  in  1810,  and  twenty-eight 
per  cent  in  1840.  Only  four  cotton  factories  in  the 
country  were  in  operation  in  1804.  Previously  nu- 
merous efforts  had  been  made  to  prosecute  the  cotton 
industry,  but  proper  machinery  was  wanting,  and 
accordingly  we  depended  upon  England  for  cotton 
goods.  Eleven  million  dollars'  worth  were  imported 
in  1807.  But  the  importance  of  the  domestic  manu- 
facture of  cotton  was  thoroughly  appreciated  by  our 
countrymen  at  that  time.  Fifteen  mills  running 
8,000  spindles  were  in  operation  in  1808,  and  in  the 
following  year  we  had  sixty-two  mills,  with  31,000 
spindles,  and  twenty-five  other  mills  were  being  built. 


64    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Within  thirty  miles  of  Providence,  in  1812,  there  were 
fifty  factories,  operating  nearly  60,000  spindles,  and 
capable  of  operating  100,000. 

During  the  war  raw  cotton  increased  in  the  South, 

o 

and  the  growth  continued.  As  the  last  important 
step  in  giving  textile  manufactures  their  present 
form,  the  power  loom  was  introduced  in  1804.  In 
the  succeeding  year  500,000  spindles  were  running, 
consuming  90,000  bales  of  cotton. 

Many  sites  of  present  flourishing  New  England 
cities  like  Lowell,  Nashua,  etc.,  were  chosen  for  mills 
shortly  after  the  crisis  of  1818-19,  when  cotton 
manufacturing,  having  been  shown  to  be  profitable, 
was  begun  on  an  extensive  scale. 

The  official  statistics  of  the  Government  previous 
to  1840  are  rather  shaky  and  meagre.  But  for  and 
since  that  year  fairly  authentic  sources  of  informa- 
tion are  at  hand  concerning  nearly  all  national  mat- 
ters. 

As  this  volume  is  intended  more  particularly  for 
the  instruction  and  benefit  of  the  farmer,  certain 
figures  relevant  to  the  growth  and  extension  of  agri- 
culture might  not  be  deemed  out  of  place  here. 

One  fact  merits  emphasis  and  that  is  this:  The 
agricultural  capital  of  the  United  States  has  increased 
six-fold  since  1840,  at  the  rate  of  ^"67,000,000  per 
annum.  Between  1840  and  1888  the  area  of  tillage 
and  planting  increased  sixty-five  per  cent,  but  the 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 


grain  crops  advanced   one  hundred   and   twenty  per 
cent,  viz.: 


YEAR. 

Millions  of  bushels. 

616 

i860   

I  .  2A.O 

1887    

2,  S86 

Improved  implements  of  husbandry  and  the  intro- 
duction of  machinery  have  made  tillage  more  pro- 
ductive and  grain  cheaper.  The  following  table,  in 
millions  of  bushels,  shows  the  distribution  of  grain 
growing  in  1887  in  this  country: 


Wheat. 

Oats. 

Barley. 

Various. 

Total. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Barley. 

Various. 

Total. 

38 

26 

3 

75 

142 

442 

640 

58 

1,446 

2,586 

Another  significant  fact  is  that  9,00x3,000  hands  in 
the  United  States  raise  nearly  half  as  much  grain  as 
66,000,000  in  Europe.  Thus  it  appears  that  for 
want  of  implements  or  proper  machinery  there  is  a 
waste  of  labor  in  Europe  equal  to  forty-eight  millions 
of  peasants.  In  other  words,  one  farm  laborer  in 
the  United  States  is  worth  more  than  three  in 
Europe.  According  to  Mulhall,  ^776,000,000  ster- 
ling, or  about  $3,779,120,000  represent  the  value  of 
all  agricultural  products  in  the  United  States,  where 
2,220  pounds  of  grain  per  inhabitant  are  produced, 
5 


66 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 


and  where,  it  is  estimated,  that  222  acres  are  under 
grain  per  100  inhabitants. 

The  production  of  meat  during  the  period  alluded 
to  above  was  approximately  as  follows: 


YEAR. 


Tons. 


1840 
i860 
1887 


2 , I2O,OOO 
2,97O,OOO 
4,750,000 


The  production  of  meat  has  risen  fifty-seven  per 
cent  since  1840. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  millions 
of  acres  of  area  under  crops  in  our  country  during 
an  interval  of  sixty -eight  years  : 


YEAR. 


Millions  of  acres. 


1820 30 

1840 50 

1 860 90 

1880 166 

1 888 20 1 

The  number  of  people  engaged  in  tillage  and 
pastoral  industries  in  the  United  States,  between 
1840  and  1887,  was  as  follows  : 

1840 2,550,000 

1 860 .........      4, 340,000 

1887 9,000,000 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 


The  rates  of  capital  and  products  that  corre- 
sponded to  the  agricultural  population,  that  is  to 
each  adult  farmer,  were : 


CAPITAL. 

PRODUCT. 

1840. 

IBS/. 

1840. 

1887. 

$i>i75 

$2,050 

$360 

$425 

Each  hand  in  the  United  States  produces  double 
the  annual  value  that  prevails  in  Europe.  In  1886-7, 
we  had  168,000,000  bushels  of  grain  to  export.  In 
that  year  the  value  of  agricultural  and  pastoral  pro- 
ducts is  shown  as  follows  : 


MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

Per  agri- 
cultural 
laborer. 

Agricultural. 

Pastoral. 

Total. 

$2,335,000,000 

$1,545,000,000 

$3,88o,OOO,OOO 

$425 

Our  approximate  agricultural  capital  in  1888  was 
as  follows : 


MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

Total. 

Per 
Inhabitant. 

Land. 

Cattle 

Sundries 

12,800.000,000 

2,505,000,000 

3,  175,000,000 

18,480,000,000 

$285 

68 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 


Approximately  the  principal  features  of   the   agri- 
cultural industry  from  1840  to  1887  were  : 


CAPITAL  IN  DOLLARS. 

PRODUCT  IN  DOLLARS. 

HANDS  

PRODUCTION 
PER  HEAD 

1840. 

1887. 

1840.                 1887. 

1840. 

1887. 

1840. 

1887. 

2,980,000,000 

18,480,000,000 

920,000,000    3,880,000,000 

2,550,000 

9,000,000 

83^0 

$425 

A  chief  occupation  of  the  first  settlers  was  tillage. 
Captain  Gornold  of  Massachusetts  grew  peas  and 
beans  in  1602;  and  in  1611  wheat  was  grown  in 
Virginia.  The  Dutch  of  Manhattan  (New  York) 
in  1626  sent  home  to  Holland  a  quantity  of  wheat. 
Potatoes  introduced  from  England  in  1629  were 
successfully  grown  in  Massachusetts.  Old  records 
bear  witness  to  the  incident  of  Mr.  Endicott  of 
Salem  selling  500  choice  fruit  trees  for  250  acres  of 
land,  and  in  the  preceding  year  certain  solemn 
burghers  in  Holland  had  been  recipients  of  apples 
grown  on  the  Island  of  Manhattan.  In  1749  South 
Carolina  exported  700  bushels  of  potatoes  and  in 
the  succeeding  year  New  York  shipped  abroad 
70,000  barrels  of  flour.  Only  on  the  basis  of  popu- 
lation can  be  estimated  the  production  of  grain  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  and  that  but  roughly  ;  for 
the  exact  returns  begin  with  1840.  However,  the 
following  table,  of  the  grain  production  of  the 
United  States,  compiled  by  one  of  the  world's  great- 
est and  most  scientific  statisticians,  is  very  inter- 
esting: 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 


69 


YEAR. 

GRAIN  PRODUCT,  MILLION  OF  BUSHELS. 

Value  of  Crop. 

Production. 

Home 
Consumption. 

Exported. 

5 
20 
60 

I2O 

160 

343 
463 
616 
867 
1,240 
1,629 
2,718 
3  '454 

5 

20 
60 
I2O 
1  60 
336 

455 
60  1 

855 
1,220 

r>569 

2,425 



$5  ,000,000 
15,000,000 
40  ,  ooo  ,  ooo 
70,000,000 
94,000,000 
185,000,000 
230,000,000 
310,000,000 
485  ,000,000 
865  ,000,000 
990,000,000 
1,380,000,000 
1,215,000,000 

1750  

T  77C  . 

I  8OO  «  •  .  •  • 

1820  
l830  
I  84O  

7 
8 

IS 

12 

20 
60 
293 

1850  ...  . 

i860  .  ... 
1870  .  ... 
1880  .  ... 
1889  

At  present  the  production  is  about  fifty-two 
bushels  per  inhabitant,  against  thirty  in  the  year  1800. 
It  forms  thirty-three  per  cent  of  the  whole  grain 
crop  of  the  world,  and  the  ratio  per  inhabitant  is 
only  approached  by  Denmark,  which  has  forty-two 
bushels  per  inhabitant. 

The  percentage  increase  from  1869  to  1889,  of 
wheat,  was  99  ;  maize,  in  ;  oats,  190;  barley,  191  ; 
rye,  42.  The  various  crops,  from  1840  to  1889,  were  : 


YEAR. 

MILLIONS  OF  BUSHELS. 

Bushels 
per 
inhabitant. 

Maize. 

Oats. 

Wheat. 

Barley. 

Rye,  etc. 

Total. 

1840    . 

378 
592 
840 
1,094 
i,7i7 

2,110 

123 
M7 
'73 
248 
418 
75° 

85 

101 

I7I 
236 

•199 
490 

4 

16 

26 
45 
64 

26 
23 
38 
25 
39 
40 

616 
868 
1,240 
1,629 
2,718 
3,454 

36 

38 

4° 
42 
54 

53 

1850 

1860  

1870 

1880  

1889 

7O    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

The  production  of  grain   in  various   parts   of  the 
Union  was  as  follows: 


MILLIONS  ( 

3F  BUSHELS 

YEAR. 

New  England 

Middle  States. 

Southern. 

Western. 

Total. 

1840.  .  , 

22 

135 

280 

I7Q 

616 

1850      

2O 

1  7O 

s6o 

318 

868 

i860    

21 

2OJ. 

412 

60  1 

i  ,240 

1870    

16 

216 

SOI 

1  ,006 

i  ,620 

1880  

18 

2T3 

442 

2,O2=; 

2,718 

1887.. 

2O 

244 

6(K 

1  ,707 

2,666 

We  produced  36,000,000  pounds  of  cotton  in  1800, 
of  which  the  home  use  amounted  to  16,000,000,  and 
20,000,000  of  pounds  were  exported,  the  value  of  the 
crop  being  ,£2,000,000.  Of  3,440,000,000  pounds 
produced  in  1888,  our  home  use  comprised  1,060,000,- 
ooo  pounds,  our  export,  2,380,000,000  pounds,  value, 
$305,000,000. 

The  average  crop  is  reckoned  to  be  190  pounds  of 
ginned  cotton  per  acre.  The  crop  of  cotton  seed 
usually  reaches  3,000,000  tons,  worth  a  little  over  $5 
per  ton. 

In  1800  we  produced  107,000,000  pounds  of  to- 
bacco, of  which  the  home  use  amounted  to  18,000,- 
ooo  pounds,  our  export  89,000,000  pounds,  the  value 
of  the  crop  being  $6,500,000.  In  1888  we  produced 
566,000,000,  pounds,  home  use,  224,000,000,  export, 
342,000,000,  value,  ,£9,100,000.  In  1850  we  pro- 
duced 313,000,000  pounds  of  butter  and  106,000,- 
ooo  pounds  of  cheese.  In  1880  we  produced  777,- 
000,000  pounds  of  butter,  272,000,000  pounds  of 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 


cheese  and  530,000,000  gallons  of  milk,  of  which  New 
York  State  furnished  2 3 2,000,000 gallons.  In  1840 we 
produced  155,000,000  pounds  of  sugar;  in  1886  we  pro- 
duced 240,000,000  pounds.  We  produced  36,000,000 
pounds  of  wool  in  1840;  in  1886  we  produced 
320,000,000  pounds.  In  1840  we  produced  10,000,000 
tons  of  hay;  in  1886  we  produced  42,000,000  tons. 
We  produced  108,000,000  bushels  of  potatoes  in  1840; 
in  1886  we  produced  168,000,000  bushels.  The  in- 
crease of  farming  area  between  1850  and  1880  was  : 


MILLIONS 

OF  ACRES. 

Rate  of 

1850. 

1880. 

per  cent. 

18 

22 

22 

Middle  

A-l 

$1 

21 

Southern  ... 

i6s 

227 

qg 

67 

212 

248 

Total  to  the  United  States  

293 

534 

82 

The  area  of  improved  lands  in  the  same  interval 
increased  thus  : 


STATES. 

MILLIONS  OF  ACRES. 

Rate  of 
increase 
per  cent. 

1850. 

1880. 

New  England  •-•  

II 

26 

49 
27 

13 
37 
82 

153 

28 
42 
67 
467 

Middle   ...  

Western  

Total  for  the  United  States.  .  . 

IJ3 

285 

152 

A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 


The  dimensions    of   the    United   States    may   be 
briefly  expressed  thus  : 


Millions  of 
acres. 

Ratio  . 

212 

O  .  2 

AA1 

in    C 

176 

7    6 

T  .  A  cf\ 

/  •  u 
6t    7 

u  J  •  / 

2,291 

0 

IOO.O 

In  1609  cattle  were  first  introduced  into  Virginia 
and  some  fifteen  years  later  they  were  introduced 
into  New  England.  So  rapidly  did  they  increase 
that  in  1639  the  number  in  the  colonies  was  esti- 
mated at  30,000.  Considerable  attention  was  given 
to  dairy  farming  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  it 
thrived  very  well.  One  enterprising  Rhode  Island 
farmer  in  1750  owned  100  milch  cows,  and  another 
in  the  same  year  made  and  sold  six  tons  of  cheese. 
But  cattle  farming  in  general  had  many  set-backs  at 
first  in  the  colonies.  Such  were  the  rigors  of  exist- 
ence that  hogs,  goats  and  sheep  were  killed  and 
eaten  as  fast  as  they  were  introduced.  But  after 
awhile  Virginia  made  it  punishable  with  death  to 
kill  any  of  those  animals  —  supplied,  by  the  way, 
from  the  West  Indies.  In  1627  the  price  of  a  cow 
in  New  York  was  $150,  while  a  yoke  of  oxen  was 
worth  $200.  At  the  same  period  it  is  recorded  that, 
in  addition  to  sheep  and  hogs,  twenty  head  of  horned 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 


73 


cattle  were  consumed  weekly  through  the  Philadel- 
phia city  market.  In  Virginia  sheep  were  found  to 
thrive,  but  their  wool  was  not  utilized,  though  the 
sheep  were  shorn  to  keep  them  cool. 

Here  follows  some  interesting  figures  as  to  the 
remarkable  development  of  live  stock  in  this  coun- 
try : 


1810. 

1840. 

1850. 

1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

Horses.  .  . 
Mules 

300,000 

4,300,000 

4,900,000 

6,200,000 

7,  100,000 

10  ,  400,  ooo 

14,200,000 

Cattle  .  .  . 
Sheep  ... 
Pies 

600,000 
600,000 

14,900,000 
19  ,  300,  ooo 

17,800,000 
21,700,000 

25.600,000 
22,500,000 

23,800,000 
28,  500,000 

31,900,000 
35,  200,000 

52,800,000 
44,300,000 

By  the  same  statistical  basis  the  meat  supply  may 
be  taken  at  500  pounds  per  beef  carcass  ;  50  pounds 
per  sheep,  and  no  pounds  per  pig.  Tallow  is  as  14 
to  100  pounds  of  beef  or  mutton,  and  lard,  20  to  100 
pounds  of  pig's  meat.  In  the  Western  States  the 
prices  are  lower  than  in  other  parts  of  the  Union, 
but  their  wealth  possessions  in  cattle  aggregate  two- 
thirds  of  the  total,  amounting  to  339,000,000  sterling. 
This  sum  far  exceeds  the  value  of  live  stock  in  any 
European  country  except  Russia,  says  Mulhall,  and 
is  five  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  cattle  of  all  kinds 
in  Australasia. 

The  census  of  1880  demonstrates  that  of  all  farm- 
ing hands,  seventy-six  per  cent  were  males  between 
sixteen  and  sixty  years  of  age.  But  for  the  years 
previous,  during  the  long  slavery  period,  accurate 
data  is  wanting.  In  later  years  we  have  seen  that 


74 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 


improved  machinery  has  rendered  farm  labor  much 
more  productive.  The  explanation  is,  contends  an 
English  authority,  that  wheat,  for  example,  has  fallen 
sixty  cents  a  bushel,  and  maize  is  in  the  same  ratio. 

Now  let  us  look  at  the  value  of  products  consumed 
at  home  and  abroad : 


YEAR. 

MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

Value  home 
consumption 
per  inhabitants. 

Home 
Consumption. 

Exported. 

Total. 

840 

835,000,000 
1,120,000,000 
1,835,000,000 

2,  100,000,000 

2,805,000,000 
3.375,000,000 

85,000,000 
130,000,000 
310,000,000 
410,000,000 
710,000,  ooo 
505,000,000 

920,000  ooo 
1,250,000,000 
2,145,000,000 
2,510,000,000 
3,515,000,000 
3,880,000,000 

$o  50 
5° 
60 
55 
55 
65 

850  

860 

870    . 

880  

886  .. 

According  to  the  great  divisions  of   the  country 
the  values  were  : 


STATES. 

MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS  (1886.) 

RATIO. 

Agricultural. 

Pastoral. 

Nominal  1880. 

1880. 

1886. 

90,000,000 
310,000,000 
750,  ooo,  ooo 
1,185,000,000 

85,000,000 
305,  ooo,  ooo 
280,000,000 
875,000,000 

175,000,000 
615,000,000 
1.030,000,000 
2,060,000,000 

5  o 
16.5 
28.5 
50.0 

45 
'5  7 
26.5 

53-3 

Middle           

Western 

Total  for  the  U.  S. 

2,335,000,000 

1,545,000,000 

3,  880,000,000 

Statistics  tend  to  prove  that  the  individual  gain  of 
those  engaged  in  agriculture  were  greatest  in  the 
period  from  1841  to  1860,  averaging  $125  a  year. 
The  civil  war  had  a  depressing  effect,  the  average 
accumulation  falling  to  $50  a  year  in  the  decade  end- 
ing 1870,  but  since  then  there  has  been  a  great 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 


75 


recovery,   the   average   reaching   $75   per  head   per 
annum. 

This  was  not  the  average  of  earnings,  but  of 
savings,  a  result  unexampled  elsewhere.  The  trade 
of  the  United  States,  from  1861  to  1886,  was  : 


MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS. 

1861-70. 

1871-80. 

1881-86. 

26  years. 

$2,465,000,000 
1,805,000,000 

$4,  940,  000,000 
5,610,000,000 

$4,035,000,000 
4,730,000.000 

$i  1,440,000,000 
12,145,000,000 

Exports  

From  1821— '40  the  United  States,  which,  next  to 
Great  Britain,  is  the  largest  consumer  of  cotton,  pro- 
duced cotton  cloth  amounting  approximately  in  Eng- 
lish statute  miles  to  3,700,000.  From  1881  to  1887, 
the  output  aggregated  16,200,000.  We  now  have 
about  13,500,000  spindles  and  about  200,000  opera- 
tives, the  value  of  the  output  being  $301,000,000. 
The  cotton  consumed,  in  millions  of  pounds,  amounts 
to  1010. 

The  yearly  value  of  our  chief  occupations,  is  as 
follows  : 

Agriculture $3,880,000,000 

Manufactures 7,215,000,000 

Mining. 535,000,000 

Transportation 1,1 55,000,000 

Commerce i  ,600,000,000 

Total $14,385,000,000 


Per  inhabitant $230 


76 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 


The  United  States  has  nearly  3,000,000  factory 
operatives.  The  average  of  working  hours  of  wages 
weekly  in  this  country,  from  1840  to  1880,  was: 


HOURS  WEEKLY. 

WAGES  WEEKLY. 

PER  HOUR. 

1840. 

1880. 

1840. 

1888. 

1840. 

1880. 

78 

68 

$3  5° 

$6  72 

$0    04i 

$0     It 

The  revenue  of  the  United  States,  in  1880,  was 
$9,500,000,  in  1889,  $403,000,000.  The  annual  reve- 
nues of  this  country,  in  the  decade,  iS/i-'So,  were: 

Customs $130,000,000 

Property  tax 

Various 1 80,000,000 


Total $311 ,000,000 

In  1888  the  wealth  of  the  United  States  was  $64,- 
120,000,000;  debt,  $1,105,000,000,  the  ratio  of  debt 
being  1.7. 

In  1887  the  United  States  produced  in  tons, 
2,190,000  of  beef,  390,000  of  mutton,  2,170,000 
of  pork,  total,  4,750,000,  the  consumption  being 
4,100,000.  We  produce  150  pounds  of  meat  yearly, 
per  inhabitant.  This  country  has  205  millions  of 
acres  of  cultivated  land,  2,086  of  uncultivated,  total, 
2,291  millions  of  acres.  The  number  of  owners  of 
this  land  is  placed  at  4,005,000;  average  acres  per 
estate,  134;  value  of  land,  2,560  millions  sterling. 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 


77 


The  Metayer,  or  share  system  of  working  farms,  is 
twice  as  common  in  this  country  as  that  of  tenants 
paying  rent  in  money. 

Below  is  given  the  cost  of  a  workman's  food  in 
1880: 


REMUNERATIO 

N  PER  WEEK. 

Percentage 

Food. 

Wages. 

of  food  cost. 

14  Shill. 

31  Shill. 

A  Z 

<fi>?    84. 

$11     52 

*tj 

•J? 

The  retail  prices  paid  by  workmen   in  1880  were 
(reckoned  in  cents)  : 


1 
I 

M 

France. 

Germany. 

X 

3 

New  York. 

Chicago. 

Beef,  Ib  

$o  20 

$o  18 

$O   1  8 

$o  16 

$O   12 

$0  08 

Bread  

O4 

O2C 

OA 

06 

O4 

O4. 

Butter,  Ib  

34. 

26 

22 

28 

28 

24. 

22 

18 

2O 

18 

28 

18 

Milk,  qt  

08 

O7 

n/i 

08 

IO 

06 

08 

IO 

TO 

08 

TO 

IO 

Coffee  Ib  

•JQ 

IO 

1A 

•?2 

26 

28 

Rice  Ib  

06 

CK 

08 

06 

IO 

IO 

Pork    Ib  

14 

14. 

16 

14. 

TO 

06 

Potatoes,  cwt  

12 

08 

08 

16 

22 

12 

A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 


Retail  prices  in  Massachusetts  from  1780  to  1880 
were  as  follows  : 


ARTICLES. 

1 
A 

r^ 

HI 

i 

1 

& 

00 

d 

•«• 

00 

a 

oT 

1 

4 

Apples   bushel  

$0     2O 

So  44 

So  44 

$o  70 

$o  88 

$1    OO 

Beans    Qt  

O4 

08 

08 

08 

06 

08 

$o  08 

Beef,  Ib  

O4 

08 

oS 

08 

08 

12 

14 

Boots   pair  

6  oo 

5    28 

4   80 

T   60 

^  oo 

2    7O 

2    5O 

Butter   Ib  

16 

22 

18 

22 

20 

26 

•32 

Calico   yd  

CO 

18 

•IQ 

24 

16 

IO 

08 

Cambric,  yd  

i  26 

80 

if) 

26 

22 

2O 

18 

Candles   Ib  

22 

22 

16 

14 

14 

28 

2O 

Cheese,  Ib  

IO 

12 

08 

IO 

IO 

12 

'14 

Cider,  gal  

06 

18 

20 

14 

16 

IO 

2S 

Codfish.  Ib  

O4 

O4 

04 

O4 

04 

06 

08 

Coffee,  Ib  

22 

26 

20 

14 

12 

16 

32 

Cottens   yd  

16 

06 

20 

14 

12 

12 

Effffs.  doz  . 

08 

22 

16 

2O 

2O 

22 

28 

Fish.lb  

O4 

06 

CM 

O4 

06 

O4 

Flannel,  yd  

42 

66 

eg 

44 

•38 

4O 

•32 

Ham,  Ib  

O4 

06 

04 

O4 

O4 

O4 

06 

Maize,  bushel  

80 

i  18 

82 

78 

72 

I    OO 

Milk,  qt  

O4 

04 

O4 

06 

06 

06 

06 

Oats,  bushel    

48 

64 

42 

e.A 

C4 

Potatoes,  bushel  .... 
Veal  

30 
06 

48 
08 

•36 

08 

SO 

08 

78 
IO 

86 

12 

I   OO 

ifi 

Wood,  ft  

•3g 

42 

44 

82 

60 

7O 

OO 

Day  labor  in  the  United  States  brought  84  cents 
in  1835  ;  in  1880,  $1.32.  Indoor  labor  brought  $140 
a  year;  in  1880,  $200.  Farm  laborers,  by  the  week, 
received  in  1850,  $3.84;  in  1880,  $6.20.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  daily  remuneration  in  various 
occupations  in  this  country,  covering  a  period  exceed- 
ing a  century : 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 


79 


TRADE. 

DAILY  REMUNERATION. 

1770-1800. 

1801-1820. 

1821-  1840. 

1841   1860. 

1861-1880. 

1881-1883. 

Hlacksmith 

$o  70 

$o  84 

$1  26 

92 

$     58 
44 
02 

$2    28 

I   y2 

2     I4 
2    O2 
2    42 
2    40 
2    30 
1    92 
I    50 
I    40 
I    80 

$      00 

5° 
44 
36 
40 
28 

Bookbinder    .. 

Brewer  

Butcher  

34 
60 

62 

I    10 

92 

48 

34 
30 
08 
16 
66 
36 
20 

Carpenter  

70 
70 
60 
40 
92 
98 
70 
54 
3° 
5° 
92 
90 
44 
40 

52 
80 
66 
oo 
46 

5° 
40 
42 
4° 

Carriages  

Clocks    ...     . 

I    12 

I   00 

Clothing    

00 

Cordage        

Cottons    

28 

oo 

Glass  

Harness 

88 

Hats    

I    96 

i   54 
I  48 
2  48 

2    80 
2    l6 
2    64 
2    40 
2    32 
I    70 
2    18 
2    50 
I    76 

2  34 
2  08 

2    30 

i  44 

2   OO 
I    32 

68 
•    20 
S2 
26 

14 
oo 

54 
84 
96 
70 
'4 
24 
88 
oo 
86 

Jewelry   

98 
84 
36 
3° 
38 
3° 

12 
28 
70 

3« 

36 
96 

3° 
3° 

Laborers 

48 

86 

Machinery  

Masons  

84 

46 
06 
14 

00 

24 

08 

'4 
26 

Metals    .. 

Millwrights  

I     10 

48 

Nailers  ... 

Painters  

Paper    

Printers  .. 

Shipbuilders  .. 

90 
74 

Shoemakers 

Stonecutters 

Tanners 

00 

Teamsters 

16 

3° 
06 

36 
40 
88 

76 
28 

22 

Turners 

92 

Woolens 

The  following  is  a  statement  covering  twenty- 
three  years,  of  the  acreage  employed  in  producing 
the  cotton,  wheat,  corn,  hay,  tobacco  and  the  minor 
cereals  exported  in  primary  form,  and  in  such  sec- 
ondary forms  as  flour,  and  animals  and  animal  pro- 
ducts, the  percentage  of  the  whole  area  under  each 
crop  so  employed,  and  the  pounds  of  animal  pro- 
ducts exported,  the  showing  being  by  averages  of 
five  years  and  three  years,  the  years  being  harvest 
years  ending  June  30  : 


8O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 


* 

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Total  area  empl 

Animal  products,  e 

OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  8 1 

Of  the  4,650,000  farms  in  the  United  States,  one 
quarter  are  mortgaged,  the  rest  being  owned  free  of 
encumbrance.  The  total  mortgage  debt  resting  upon 
the  farms  of  the  country  is  $2,040,000,000.  The 
mortgages  on  farms  are  just  about  one-half  in  value 
of  the  mortgages  on  city  and  town  lots,  and  are 
increasing  in  much  smaller  ratio.  The  per  capita 
debt  of  the  United  States  is  $14.  It  has  truly  been 
said  that  mortgages  on  farming  lands  are  always  an 
incident  of  progress  in  newly  developed  countries, 
and  are  practically  one  of  the  necessities  of  develop- 
ment. A  farmer  opening  up  new  land  requires 
many  things  which  can  not  be  bought  on  credit  at  a 
distance,  to  secure  which  he  mortgages  his  land,  the 
productiveness  of  which  is  enhanced  by  the  articles 
which  the  proceeds  of  the  mortgage  enable  him  to 
buy.  Taking  the  whole  country  through,  the  aggre- 
gate mortgage  debt  on  all  farms  is  not  much  more 
than  ten  per  cent  of  their  total  value,  and  in  some 
States  it  is  much  less  than  this.  The  rate  of  interest 
varies  from  five  and  one-half  to  nine  per  cent.  The 
average  is  about  seven  per  cent.  The  rate  is  highest 
in  those  States  in  which  the  legal  rate  of  interest  is 
greater  than  in  eastern  communities.  The  legal  rate 
of  interest  is  six  or  seven  per  cent  in  most  of  the 
States,  but  in  Idaho,  Montana  and  Wyoming  it  is 
ten  per  cent  or  more.  The  income  from  land  in 
every  part  of  the  United  States  is  materially  greater 
than  the  mortgage  interests.  Since  1860  our  manu- 
factures have  increased  in  value  from  less  than 
6 


82    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

$2,000,000,000  to  $7,000,000,000;  the  value  of  our 
farms  from  $2,000,000,000  to  $5,000,000,000,  and 
our  yearly  products  of  wool  from  60,000,000  pounds 
to  nearly  300,000,000  pounds.  We  are,  to-day,  the 
first  manufacturing  nation  in  the  world.  We  have 
in  thirty-three  years  multiplied  our  commerce  by 
eight ;  England  has  only  multiplied  hers  by  four  in 
the  same  time.  Our  railroad  mileage  has  been  mul- 

o 

tiplied  by  five  within  the  same  period,  and  the 
rolling  stock  of  our  .railroads  is  computed  to  be 
worth  nine  times  as  much  as  the  boasted  merchant's 
marine  of  England. 


THE  FREE  TRADE   DOCTRINE. 

Since  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution 
there  has  always  been  a  contention  between  the 
people  of  this  country,  arrayed  against  each  other  in 
political  parties,  in  regard  to  the  respective  merits  of 
a  protective  tariff  and  a  tariff  for  revenue  only.  For 
over  one  hundred  years  under  varying  conditions  of 
national  welfare,  this  controversy  has  been  per- 
sistently maintained,  not  only  among  the  people  at 
large,  but  in  legislative  halls,  and  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  it  will  always  continue. 

No  changes,  however  radical,  at  different  eras  in 
our  national  life  have  sufficed  to  effectually  settle  the 
question  beyond  resurrection.  Whether  under  high 
tariffs  or  low  tariffs,  whether  in  times  of  great  pros- 
perity or  periods  of  general  depression  there  has 


OUR   TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  83 

always  been  a  considerable  number  to  contend  that 
a  policy  contrary  to  the  prevailing  one  would  be 
both  wise  and  expedient,  if  not  imperative.  Some- 
times the  opposition  has  been  strong  enough  to 
effect  an  immediate  change  in  the  existing  laws ;  at 
other  times  it  has  remained  in  a  hopeless  minority 
for  many  years,  but  eventually  the  unceasing  turn  of 
the  wheel  of  Time  has  brought  about  some  altera- 
tion in  the  condition  of  affairs,  more  or  less  satisfac- 
tory to  those  who  desired  a  change.  It  cannot,  how- 
ever, be  said  that  these  mutations  have  invariably 
come  about  through  any  general  belief  that  incalcul- 
able benefits  would  accrue,  but  often  have  been  the 
result  of  seemingly  unaccountable  political  caprice 
of  the  people. 

From  the  time  when  the  first  tariff  law  was  passed 
primarily  to  provide  necessary  revenue  for  a  new  and 
sparsely  settled  country  with  meagre  resources  and 
little  if  any  credit,  but  incidentally  to  stimulate  and 
encourage  domestic  manufactures,  it  has  ever  been 
the  claim  of  those  who  favor  a  high  tariff  that  pro- 
tection is  necessary  for  the  success  of  American  in- 
dustry, and  they  proudly  point  to  the  enormous 
growth  of  manufacturing  in  this  country  since  the 
Rebellion  as  the  result  of  that  policy.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  that  calls  himself  a  "  tariff  reformer"  and  is 
referred  to  by  his  opponent  as  a  free  trader,  avers 
that  if  this  country  has  prospered  it  has  not  been  on 
account  of  protection,  but  in  spite  of  it ;  that  our 
great  national  wealth  to-day  is  not  the  product  of 


84    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

high  tariffs,  but  is  the  result  of  the  development  of 
the  greatest  natural  resources  in  the  world.  Certain 
free  traders  contend  that  the  wage  question  is  not 
affected  by  the  tariff ;  that  the  rate  of  wages  is  gov- 
erned entirely  by  the  demand  and  supply  of  labor ; 
that  under  protection,  labor,  the  great  potential 
factor  in  the  creation  of  wealth,  has  constantly  been 
systematically  deprived  of  its  just  and  equitable  pro- 
portion of  the  benefits  derived.  In  discussing  the 
tariff  question  in  a  general  way  it  is  eminently  proper 
to  give  some  consideration  to  the  position  maintained 
by  those  who  argue  in  favor  of  a  revenue  or  substan- 
tially "  free  trade "  tariff  and  the  arguments  they 
advance  in  support  thereof. 

To  begin  with,  it  must  be  conceded  on  both  sides 
that  the  condition  of  the  country  has  so  vastly 
changed  during  the  past  century  that  no  argument 
can  be  sustained  wholly  upon  precedent ;  that  what 
was  wise  and  expedient  in  1789  is  not  necessarily  so 
at  the  present  day,  and  that  in  outlining  a  policy  for 
the  future  the  most  advantageous  course  to  be  pur- 
sued can  best  be  determined  by  a  contemplation 
of  present  conditions  and  the  ascertainment  of  the 
causes  which  have  produced  them.  However,  to 
fortify  their  respective  positions  both  protectionists 
and  free  traders  are  wont  to  resort  to  the  opinions 
of  the  great  statesmen  of  the  different  periods  of 
our  national  history,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that 
from  these  sources  no  inconsiderable  amount  of  am- 
munition is  drawn. 


OUR   TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  85 

The  free  trader  readily  admits  that  when  the 
country  was  in  its  infancy,  a  high  tariff  was  justifi- 
able ;  that  at  certain  times  the  increased  expenditures, 
incident  to  war,  have  warranted'  the  imposition  of 
duties,  which,  though  intended  mainly  for  the  col- 
lection of  a  necessarily  large  revenue,  have  been  es- 
sentially protective  in  effect,  but  he  steadfastly  insists 
that  protection  at  times  is  a  flagrant  discrimination 
in  favor  of  the  few,  as  against  the  many,  which  the 
people  patiently  submit  to  from  patriotic  motives  in 
times  of  dire  need,  but  which  they  denounce  and 
protest  against  in  times  of  profound  peace  and 
prosperity,  as  a  measure  which  can  find  no  justifica- 
tion. Furthermore,  the  free  trader  says  that  the 
most  prominent  advocates .  of  protection  in  early 
days  admitted  that  it  was  to  be  a  temporary  measure 
only ;  that  there  was  no  intention  of  making  it  the 
fixed  and  permanent  policy  of  the  nation.  Under 
the  revenue  tariff,  between  1789  and  1816,  exports 
increased  two  hundred  and  forty-one  per  cent;  under 
the  moderate  protective  tariff,  from  1816  to  1824, 
there  was  a  decrease  of  twenty-one  per  cent ;  under 
the  high  protective  tariff,  from  1824  to  1832,  there 
was  an  increase  of  twenty-one  per  cent ;  under  the 
lower  compromise  tariff,  from  1833  to  1842,  there 
was  an  increase  of  forty-eight  per  cent ;  under  the 
high  protective  tariff,  from  1842  to  1846,  there  was 
an  increase  of  one  per  cent;  under  the  low  tariff, 
from  1846  to  1857,  an  increase  of  one  hundred  and 
seventy-four  per  cent,  and  under  the  lower  revenue 


86    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

tariff,   from    1857  to    1860,  an  increase   of    thirteen 
per  cent. 

Free  Trade,  according  to  a  certain  Philadelphia 
newspaper,  "  means  such  an  adjustment  of  taxes  on 
imports  as  will  cause  no  diversion  of  capital  from  any 
channel  into  which  it  would  otherwise  flow,  into 
any  channel  opened  or  favored  by  the  legislation 
which  exacts  the  customs.  A  country  may  collect 
its  entire  revenue  by  duties  on  imports,  and  yet  be 
an  entirely  Free  Trade  country,  so  long  as  it  does 
not  lay  those  duties  in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  any  one 
to  undertake  any  employment  or  make  any  invest- 
ment he  would  in  the  absence  of  such  duties." 
David  A.  Wells,  a  prolific  writer  on  economics,  de- 
fines free  trade  as  the  right  of  every  man  to  freely 
exchange  the  products  of  his  labor  and  services  in 
such  a  way  as  seems  to  him  most  advantageous,  sub- 
ject only  to  such  restrictions  as  the  State  may  find 
necessary  to  make  for  the  purposes  of  revenue  or  for 
sanitary  or  moral  considerations.  Conversely,  it  is 
the  denial  of  the  right  of  a  free  government  to  arbi- 
trarily take  from  any  person  any  portion  of  the  pro- 
duct of  his  labor  for  the  benefit  of  some  other  man 
who  has  not  earned  or  paid  for  it.  It  is  further 
contended  by  the  same  clever  disputant  that  nine- 
tenths  of  all  the  arts  and  manufactures  of  the  country 
exist  by  reason  of  necessity,  rather  than  by  rea- 
son of  any  system  of  revenue  laws ;  not  by 
any  discrimination  in  the  imposition  of  duties; 
not  from  any  cause  which  it  is  the  power  of 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  8 7 

legislators  to  promote,  except  by  assuring  per- 
sonal safety,  the  enforcement  of  contracts,  and  an 
honestly  earned  dollar  as  the  unit  of  money.  He 
maintains  that  there  is  not  a  single  great  branch  of 
domestic  manufactures  which  had  not  been  estab- 
lished in  some  form  in  this  country  long  before  a 
protective  tariff  had  been  or  could  have  been  imposed. 
The  manufacture  of  iron  is  nearly  as  old  as  the  his- 
tory of  every  colony  or  territory  in  which  there  is 
any  iron  ore.  The  manufacture  of  woolens  is  as  old 
as  the  country  itself,  and  was  more  truly  a  domestic 
manufacture  when  our  ancestors  were  clothed  in 
homespun  than  it  is  now.  The  manufacture  of  cot- 
ton is  almost  as  old  as  the  production  of  the  fibre  on 
our  territory.  So  also  of  the  manufacture  of  leather, 
boots  and  shoes,  hardware,  furniture,  woodenware, 
paper,  spirituous  liquors,  etc.,  etc.  Beyond  these 
there  are  to  be  found  comparatively  few  per- 
sons employed  on  glass,  pottery  and  silk.  A 
protective  tariff,  claims  Mr.  Wells,  cannot  by  any 
possibility  directly  benefit  our  great  agricultural 
staples,  such  as  wheat,  corn,  beef,  pork,  lard, 
tallow,  butter,  cheese,  cotton,  hay  and  our  fresh 
and  canned  fruits  and  vegetables.  Any  thing,  which, 
like  these  products,  can  be  exported  regularly,  and 
sold  in  competition  in  foreign  countries  with  similar 
foreign  products,  cannot  be  directly  benefited  by  any 
tariff  legislation.  Nor  would  an  immense  variety  of 
the  products  of  our  other  industries  be  thus  bene- 
fited. Not  one  of  these  commodities  would  be 


88    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

imported  to  any  considerable  extent  if  the  tariff  was 
entirely  abolished  and,  under  free  trade,  most  of 
them  would  be  manufactured  and  exported  in  vastly 
larger  quantities  than  at  present.  It  is  an  imperti- 
nent pretext  to  assert  that  a  high  tariff  is  necessary 
to  maintain  the  wages  of  the  American  coal  and  iron 
miners  or  the  men  in  our  blast  furnaces,  at  a  high 
rate.  It  is  argued  that  the  greatest  resulting  evil  of 
a  high  protection  system  is  the  burden  of  taxation — 
direct  and  indirect.  But  in  spite  of  this  the  energies 
of  our  people  have  thus  far  enabled  the  country  to 
bear  it  and  still  prosper.  Another  disastrous  evil  is, 
that  in  the  effort  to  protect  a  fraction  of  our  indus- 
tries through  taxtion  and  restrictions  on  exchanges, 
the  cost  of  all  the  products  of  our  entire  industry  is 
enhanced  to  such  an  extent,  that  as  a  nation,  we  can- 
not export  our  manufactured  products,  and  so  extend 
our  market  and  increase  our  opportunities  for  do- 
mestic employment,  except  in  those  cases  where  our 
natural  advantages  for  production  are  so  great,  as  in 
the  case  of  agriculture,  as  to  overcome  the  increase 
of  cost  of  all  production,  thus  unnaturally  and  artifi- 
cially created.  Hence,  the  periodical  glut  of  our 
markets  and  suspension  of  our  industries  and  the 
consequent  wrong  done  to  labor.  Hence,  the  evils  of 
the  so-called  "  over-production,"  which  the  free  traders 
insist  is  simply  a  wrong  name  for  misdirected  produc- 
tion. We  annually  import  from  foreign  countries  ar- 
ticles of  necessity,  used  in  our  domestic  industries,  or 
as  the  food,  and  for  the  comfort  of  our  operatives, 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  89 

above  $160,000,000  in  value ;  on  which  we  collect  from 
$50,000,000  to  $60,000,000  of  duties,  and  these  raise 
the  cost  of  the  manufactures  into  which  they  enter  at 
least  $100,000,000  higher  than  they  need  be..  This 
in  effect  amounts  to  our  granting  a  bounty  of  ten 
per  cent  on  the  exportations  from  Europe  of  $1,000,- 
000,000  worth  of  finished  products  by  a  useless  tax 
of  $60,000,000,  and  to  this  extent  make  war  upon 
our  own  laborers.  Not  more  than  $5  worth  in  one 
hundred  of  all  our  agricultural  products  could  pos- 
sibly be  imported  if  there  were  no  duty  on  foreign 
products  of  like  kind,  and  if  there  never  had  been 
any.  Not  $10  worth  in  every  hundred  of  all  the 
manufactured  goods,  of  every  kind  which  we  produce 
could  be  imported  if  there  were  no  duties  upon  for- 
eign goods  of  like  kind,  and  if  there  never  had  been 
any.  If  all  taxation  on  imports,  except  for  revenue, 
were  abrogated,  it  would  be  extremely  difficult  to 
show  that  as  many  as  five  persons  out  of  every' 
hundred  who  are  employed  in  gainful  occupations  in 
this  country  could  be  injuriously  affected  by  any 
competition  of  laborers  in  other  countries,  whose 
products  could  be  sent  here,  even  if  there  were  no 
duties  whatever  on  foreign  imports ;  and  if  the 
changes  were  judiciously  made,  new  occupations 
would  open  for  them  faster  than  their  old  occupa- 
tions would  be  affected.  The  proof  that  the  pro- 
tective tariff  policy  has  not  secured  high  wages  to 
the  laborer  in  this  country  may  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  wages  are  the  highest  in  the  United  States  — 


9<D          A    PRACTICAL    BOOK    FOR    PRACTICAL    PEOPLE. 

absolutely,  and  in  comparison  with  the  old  world 
rates  —  in  those  industries  which  do  not  have,  or 
confessedly  do  not  need,  protection.  Take  for  illus- 
trations of  this  assertion  the  industry  of  food  prepa- 
rations in  Massachusetts,  all  of  which  we  export,  the 
rates  of  wages  being  two  hundred  and  fifty  per  cent 
higher  than  in  Great  Britain ;  in  brick  making, 
American  wa^es  are  double  those  of  the  British,  and 

O 

so  it  is  in  the  building  trades  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  boots  and  shoes.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  American  laborer  has  little  advantage  in 
such  highly  protected  industries  as  metal  and 
metal  goods  and  in  carpeting.  But,  on  the  whole, 
Mr.  Wells  admits  that  wages  are  higher  in  Amer- 
ica than  in  Europe,  because,  owing  to  our  great 
natural  advantages,  labor,  intelligently  applied,  will 
here  yield  a  greater  or  better  result  than  in  almost 
any  other  country.  It  has  always  been  so,  he  says, 
•ever  since  the  first  settlements  within  our  territory, 
and  this  is  the  main  cause  of  the  tide  of  immigration 
that  for  the  last  two  hundred  years  has  flowed  hither- 
ward.  The  relations  which  the  sums  paid  for  labor 
in  the  great  industries  of  this  country  sustain  to  the 
total  value  of  the  finished  products  of  such  industries 
show,  according  to  the  census  of  1880,  that  in  manu- 
factures of  wool  the  wages  paid  represent  on  an 
average  sixteen  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  finished 
product ;  in  iron  and  steel  twenty-one  per  cent ; 
in  cotton  twenty-two  per  cent,  and  in  silk  thirty- 
seven  per  cent.  There  is  no  foundation  for  the 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  9! 

assertion  that  high  wages  necessarily  involve  a  high 
cost  of  production,  for  exactly  the  reverse  is  true. 
The  high  authority  referred  to  thus  defends  the 
proposition  :  "  Wages  are  labor's  share  of  product, 
and  in  every  healthy  business  are  ultimately  paid  out 
of  product.  No  employer  of  labor  can  continue  for 
any  great  length  of  time  to  pay  high  wages  unless 
his  product  is  large.  If  it  is  not  and  he  attempts  it, 
it  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  his  affairs  will  be 
wound  up  by  the  sheriff.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a 
high  rate  of  wages  is  permanently  paid  in  any  indus- 
try, and  in  any  country,  it  is  in  itself  proof  positive 
that  the  product  of  labor  is  large,  that  the  laborer  is 
entitled  to  a  generous  share  of  it,  and  that  the  em- 
ployer can  afford  to  give  it  to  him." 

In  this  connection  Henry  Watterson,  editor  of  the 
Louisville  Courier  Journal,  has  written  much.  In  a 
magazine  article  published  in  1888,  he  said:  "The 
American  farmer  for  example  —  to  say  nothing  of 
the  millions  of  Americans  engaged  in  mercantile  and 
professional  permits,  who  are  in  the  same  boat  with 
the  farmer  —  has  no  protection  for  his  products. 
He  pays  relatively  as  high  for  the  labor  he  employs 
as  the  American  manufacturer.  Indeed,  the  differ- 
ence between  the  wages  he  pays  his  work-people  and 
those  paid  by  his  foreign  rivals  to  their  work-people 
is  often  greater  than  the  difference  in  wages  paid  re- 
spectively by  American  and  European  manufacturers. 
Yet  the  American  farmer  maintains  a  successful 
competition  with  the  pauper  labor  of  Europe.  Why 


92    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

is  this,  and  is  it  not  an  answer  to  the  plea  for  protec- 
tion to  the  manufacturer  which  is  neither  given  to  nor 
asked  by  the  farmer  ?  The  farmer  takes  his  products 
abroad  and  sells  them  at.  a  profit  in  the  home  market 
of  his  foreign  rival.  But  he  cannot  purchase  in  that 
market  what  he  wants  without  paying  a  bounty  in 
the  form  of  protective  duties  collected,  the  moment 
he  touches  his  native  shore,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
American  manufacturer.  In  other  words,  he  is  com- 
pelled by  law  to  pay,  out  of  what  he  gets  for  his  un- 
protected produce,  a  tax  to  enable  his  fellow-citizen, 
the  protected  manufacturer,  to  make  a  profit  on 
what  he  produces.  What  reimbursement  does  the 
farmer  get  for  his  forced  tribute  to  the  manufacturer? 
He  gets  nothing.  He  is  told  that  he  gets  a  home 
market  for  what  he  has  to  sell  and  a  cheaper  market 
for  what  he  has  to  buy.  If  he  did,  that  would  end 
the  argument.  But  he  does  not,  because  if  he  had  not 
exhausted  the  home  market,  he  would  have  nothing 
to  send  abroad  to  sell,  and  if  the  home  manufacturer 
could  and  did  undersell  the  foreign  market  from  which 
the  farmer  is  excluded  by  protective  duties,  what 
need  would  the  home  manufacturer  have  for  those 
duties?  They  are  levied  to  enable  him  to  make  a 
profit  against  his  foreign  rival,  and  to  the  extent  of 
his  wants  the  American  farmer  must  pay  the  differ- 
ence." Mr.  Watterson  goes  on  to  say  that  within 
twenty-five  years  there  has  been  a  decline  in  prices 
and  that  England  can  undersell  only  because  the 
tariff  has  not  reduced  the  prices  in  this  country  to 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  93 

the  level  of  prices  in  England.  The  wages  of  labor 
in  the  United  States  are  fixed  by  the  wages  of  the 
unprotected  farm  hand,  not  of  the  protected  factory 
operative.  It  is  cheap  land,  not  protective  duties, 
that  produces  high  wages,  completely  refuting  the 
old  protectionist  theory  that  "high  prices  make  high 
wages,  and  that  low  prices  make  low  wages."  High 
prices  have  often  coexisted  with  low  wages,  and  low 
prices  have  often  coexisted  and  now  coexist  with 
high  wages.  This  is  true  even  with  respect  to  nomi- 
nal wages,  i.  e.,  to  wages  reckoned  in  money.  It  is 
still  truer  with  respect  to  real  wages,  i.  e.,  to  wages 
estimated  in  the  food  or  other  things  which  the  work- 
man buys  with  his  money  wages.  Manufactured 
products  may  be  divided  into  three  elements  —  the 
labor,  the  raw  material,  and  the  capital  required  to 
bring  these  two  together.  If  the  price  of  the  raw 
material  is  high,  labor's  reward  must  be  low.  If  the 
use  of  money  —  or  the  rate  of  interest  —  is  high, 
there  is  a  corresponding  decrease  in  the  rewards  of 
labor.  But  political  economists  have  noticed  during 
the  past  fifty  years,  as  capital  has  accumulated,  the 
rate  of  interest  and  the  tendency  of  profits  have 
been  downward.  As  these  elements  in  the  cost  of 
production  decrease,  there  is  a  greater  margin 
allowed  for  the  reward  of  labor.  Because  of  the  vast 
improvement  in  mechanical  industry  and  the  wonder- 
ful progress  made  in  transportation,  the  general  con- 
dition of  the  laboring  classes  throughout  the  world 
has  been  advanced.  In  this  advance  the  laborer  of 


94    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

America  has  shared ;  but  in  so  far  as  the  tariff 
enhances  the  cost  of  the  raw  material  used  by  the 
manufacturer,  the  wages  of  the  American  laborer 
suffer  ;  in  so  far  as  the  market  of  the  American  pro- 
duct is  restricted,  and  the  reward  of  capital  caused 
thereby  is  augmented,  the  laborer  pays  the  penalty. 
In  a  speech  before  Congress  in  1892,  Hon.  Elijah 
V.  Brookshire  said  :  "  Fifteen  years  ago  it  would 
take  two  men  all  day  to  put  barbs  on  three  or  four 
hundred  pounds  of  wire.  To-day  two  men  receiving 
less  wages  per  day,  with  improved  machinery  can 
put  barb  upon  three  or  four  thousand  pounds  of 
wire.  So  the  labor-cost  due  to  use  of  labor-saving 
machinery  has  been  many  fold  reduced  in  every  line 
of  manufacture.  Competition  has  its  real  applica- 
tion in  the  selling  price  of  the  finished  product. 
Competition  can  never  figure  very  seriously  with 
reference  to  the  first  cost;  but  in  the  absence  of 
trusts  and  combinations  it  is  singularly  important  in 
the  selling  price  of  articles  of  the  same  line  of  goods 
manufactured  by  competing  establishments. 
Reciprocity  is  a  sad  commentary  upon  the  home 
market  theory,  and  is  a  virtual  concession  that 
markets  have  to  be  found  for  other  bushels  of  wheat 
and  other  barrels  of  pork.  So  the  protectionist  has 
been  driven  from  his  former  position.  He  has  taken 
his  stand  upon  new  ground  and  behind  new  fortifica- 
tions. The  leading  protectionists  know  that  forty 
per  cent  of  our  people  are  directly  interested  in 
agriculture,  and  that  something  had  to  be  done  in 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  95 

order  to  appease  the  approaching  storm  of  righteous 
indignation ;  that  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  new 
stage-setting  and  change  of  scenery.  *  *  *  The 
true  American  policy,  in  my  judgment,  is  to  encour- 
age trade  with  all  the  world  ;  treat  all  nations  with 
equal  friendship  ;  enter  into  entangling  alliance  with 
none  ;  buy  the  things  we  need  where  they  are  pro- 
duced cheapest,  and  sell  our  merchandise  in  the 
markets  where  our  goods  are  dearest.  Let  us  not, 
by  law,  seek  to  defeat  the  orderly  and  beneficient  pro- 
ceedings incident  to  natural  conditions." 

Concerning  this  mooted  question  of  wages,  Jacob 
Schoenhof,  a  widely  read  and  quoted  writer  on  politi- 
cal economy,  thinks  it  is  a  fortunate  sign  of  the 
times  that  we  are  at  last  beginning  to  recognize  the 
all-important  and  redeeming  fact  that  cheap  labor 
by  no  means  means  cheap  production  ;  that,  on  the 
contrary,  low  cost  of  production  and  a  high  wage 
rate  go  hand  in  hand.  In  demonstration  of  this 
position,  it  is  asserted  that  "the  United  States,  with 
its  vast  resources,  free  laws,  and  extended  territory, 
gives  a  field  for  employment  of  labor  which  no  other 
country  possesses,  excepting,  perhaps,  the  Australian 
colonies.  The  great  stretch  of  unoccupied  soil  gives 
an  opportunity  for  the  satisfaction  of  what  is  one  of 
the  chief  desires  of  man  —  to  be  possessor  of  a  home- 
stead upon  his  own  land.  From  the  widely  distribu- 
ted ownership  of  land  radiate  all  other  employments. 
A  high  wage  rate  and  a  higher  standard  of  living  are 
thereby  insured.  So  long  as  the  land  is  able  to  absorb, 


96    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

in  times  of  business  depression  and  collapse  in  manu- 
facturing industries,  the  surplus  labor  of  the  towns,  a 
lower  wage  rate,  once  reached,  cannot  permanently 
maintain.  Labor,  under  all  circumstances,  instead 
of  being  always  ready  to  submit  to  a  pressing-down 
process  by  the  exercise  of  the  undue  power  of  capi- 
tal, as  maintained  by  the  old  economists,  under  free 
laws  and  freedom  of  association  maintains,  and  with 
slight  variations,  always  regains,  if  temporarily  lost, 
its  old  position  and  wage  rate."  Along  this  line  of 
reasoning  the  contention  is  made  that  the  inevitable 
results  of  a  high  rate  of  wages  do  not  injure  the 
employer,  but  fully  as  much  benefit  him  as  the 
working  classes,  because  where  the  rate  of  day 
wages  is  high,  the  employer's  first  object  is  to 
economize  employment.  "  The  result  is,"  declares  Mr. 
Schoenhof,  "that  in  no  country  is  the  organization  of 
labor  in  mills  and  factories  so  complete  as  in  the 
United  States.  In  no  country  is  the  application  of 
machinery  carried  to  the  extent  to  which  it  is  carried 
in  the  United  States.  Here  invention  and  improve- 
ment are  always  most  readily  welcome  in  the  labor 
processes  involved.  Manufacturers  introducing  a 
change  in  manufactures  have  a  machine  built  to 
accomplish  what  in  other  countries  would  be  left  to 
hand  labor  to  bring  about.  Machinery,  used  to  the 
limit  of  its  life  in  Europe,  is  cast  aside  in  America  if 
only  partially  worn,  or,  while  satisfactory  in  this 
respect,  if  an  improvement  has  come  out  that  can  do 
the  work  quicker  and  consequently  cheaper.  The 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  97 

improvement  introduced  by  one  manufacturer  is 
quickly  adopted  by  his  c'ompetitors.  Labor-saving 
is  the  result,  and  a  cheapening  of  production  ensues, 
which  is  the  due  outcome  of  the  high  cost  of  day 
labor  in  the  United  States." 

Now  with  reference  to  agriculture  it  is  pertinent 
to  give  some  of  the  principal  free  trade  theories.  If, 
in  regulating  our  foreign  and  domestic  trade  rela- 
tions, consideration  were  paid  to  our  various  indus- 
tries in  proportion  to  their  relative  importance,  the 
claims  of  agriculture  would  be  justly  entitled  to  the 
first  hearing,  for  farming  employs  a  much  larger 
number  of  our  citizens  than  any  other  occupation, 
and  its  aggregate  product  is  far  greater  than  that  of 
any  other  interest. 

In  all  the  tariff  legislation  of  the  past  century  the 
utmost  concern  has  been  expressed  by  statesmen  for 
the  welfare  of  the  American  farmer,  and  specious 
arguments  have  been  constantly  expounded  by  wily 
politicians  to  show  how  deeply  interested  they  are 
in  "protecting"  agriculture.  But  the  free  traders 
insist  that  as  a  matter  of  fact,  however  ingeniously 
tariff  laws  have  been  framed,  no  sophistry  has  been 
able  to  cover  up  the  knowledge  that  legislation  os- 
tensibly in  the  interest  of  the  farmer  invariably  oper- 
ates to  the  advantage  of  the  manufacturer,  and  the 
farmer  comes  out  at  the  little  end.  Protection,  they 
aver,  does  not  protect  the  farmer.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  indirectly  robs  him,  for  while  it  practically 
adds  nothing  to  the  price  he  obtains  for  his  produce, 
7 


98    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

it  compels  him  to  pay  higher  prices  for  nearly  every 
thing  he  has  to  buy.  The  prices  of  most  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  farm  have  never  been  so  low  as  during 
recent  high  tariff  times.  Why  is  this  ?  One  cause 
manifestly  is  that  the  farmer  has  been  studiously 
deluded  with  the  home  market  humbug.  He  needs, 
more  than  any  thing  else,  a  home  market  in  which  he 
can  purchase  his  supplies  as  cheaply  as  his  competi- 
tors do.  But  protection  denies  this  to  him.  Within 
the  last  thirty  years  the  principal  products  of  the 
farm  have  increased  in  volume  to  a  far  greater  extent 
than  the  population.  The  importation  of  similar 
products  has  been  comparatively  small,  for  the  ob- 
vious reason  that  no  considerable  market  could  be 
obtained  here  for  natural  products  of  which  we  had 
so  large  a  surplus.  How  much  greater  could  be 
made  the  home  market  for  farm  products  ?  Very 
little.  At  the  present  time  we  make  over  ninety  per 
cent  of  all  the  manufactured  goods  used  in  this 
country,  and  yet  the  employees  of  all  our  mills  added 
to  all  the  miners  do  not  constitute  ten  per  cent  of 
our  population.  Therefore  if  the  importation  of 
agricultural  products  were  absolutely  prohibited,  the 
manufacturing  industries  could  not  materially  in- 
crease the  American  farmers'  home  market. 

Before  the  Civil  War  no  States  were  more  thrifty 
in  agriculture  than  New  York,  Connecticut  and 
Massachusetts.  These  three  States  were  foremost 
in  building  up  and  developing  factories  and  protected 
industries.  In  no  other  section  of  the  country  have 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  99 

conditions  been  more  favorable  for  the  creation  of  a 
home  market.  The  facts,  however,  show  how  de- 
lusive this  idea  has  proved.  The  farming  interest  in 
Connecticut  has  steadily  decreased  and  the  agricul- 
tural towns  are  losing  in  wealth  and  population,  al- 
though all  of  them  are  near  the  factories  of  protected 
manufactures.  The  Connecticut  State  Register 
shows  that  forty-five  farming  towns  during  the  last 
twenty  years  have  lost  $4,636,700,  or  seventeen  per 
cent,  while  the  entire  State  has  increased  $78,274,016, 
or  thirty-one  per  cent,  during  the  same  period.  In 
Massachusetts,  one  of  the  greatest  manufacturing 
States,  the  figures  are  still  more  emphatic.  The 
value  of  farm  lands  in  that  State  was  $116,629,849 
in  1875,  and  only  $110,700,707  in  1885.  The 
amount  and  value  of  farm  products  have  also  dimin- 
ished. The  State  raised  4, 767,000 bushels  of  potatoes 
in  1845  and  but  3,584,000  bushels  in  1885.  Only  half 
as  much  cheese  was  made  in  1865  as  in  1845,  and 
considerably  less  was  made  in  1885.  Only  one- 
seventh  as  much  beef  was  produced  in  1885  as  in 
1865.  The  wool  industry  has  rapidly  dropped  under 
a  high  tariff.  The  production  in  1845  was  1,015,000 
pounds;  in  1865  it  was  609,000  pounds  and  in  1885 
it  had  fallen  to  255,000  pounds.  The  price  of  wool 
also  declined  about  thirty-five  per  cent  during  the 
decade  between  1875  and  1885.  New  York,  the 
greatest  commonwealth  in  the  Union  in  population 
and  wealth,  and  once  in  agriculture,  has  made  pro- 
digious strides  in  prosperity  and  its  wealth  has  enor- 


TOO   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

mously  increased,  but  alas  !  agriculture  has  not  re- 
ceived its  fair  share  of  the  benefits.  The  statistician 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  said  in  his  report 
in  1887  :  "  New  York  farmers  are  more  in  debt  than 
they  were  ten  years  ago  ;  the  average  depreciation 
in  farming  lands  is  fully  one-third  in  ten  years  ;  prob- 
ably one  third  of  the  farms  in  the  State  would  not 
sell  for  more  than  the  cost  of  the  buildings  and  other 
improvements  ;  thirty  per  cent  of  the  farms  are 
mortgaged  two-thirds  of  their  estimated  value. 

In  fourteen  counties,  including  some  of  the  best 
agricultural  counties  of  the.  State,  the  State  Assessors 
reported  in  1889,  that  the  value  of  farm  lands  was 
decreasing.  "  City  property  is  increasing  in  value, 
while  farming  property  is  growing  less  and  less  valu- 
able," said  Assessor  Wood  ;  "  I  cannot  see  any  way 
for  it  to  improve  and  in  a  few  years  you  will  see  more 
tenant  farmers  than  any  thing  else." 

If  the  financial  condition  of  the  Eastern  farmer 
has  been  constantly  becoming  poorer,  the  advocate 
of  high  protection  has  always  been  ready  with  what 
he  considers  a  satisfactory  explanation,  in  the  fact 
that  this  state  of  affairs  has  not  been  due  to  protec- 
tion, but  to  the  growing  competition  of  the  West. 
But  this  proves  a  poor  defense,  for  the  Great  West 
is  also  a  sufferer  from  protection.  In  February,  1889, 
Senator  Paddock  of  Nebraska  presented  in  the  Senate 
an  appeal  in  behalf  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance  of 
Nebraska,  in  which  it  was  stated  that  "  The  present 
economic  condition  of  the  State  of  Nebraska  and  of 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  IOI 

the  country  generally  is  anomalous,  inasmuch  as  while 
the  production  of  wealth  is  unprecedented,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  producers  of  wealth  is  not  improving,  but 
is,  on  the  contrary,  retrograding.  While  no  period  has 
witnessed  a  greater  aggregate  increase  of  wealth  than 
in  the  past  twenty  years,  at  the  same  time  the  farmers 
of  Nebraska  are  sinking  deeper  and  deeper  in  debt." 
No  local  causes  can  account  for  the  general  decline 
in  agriculture — the  fault  lies  deeper.  L.  L.  Polk, 
President  of  the  National  Farmers'  Alliance,  address- 
ing the  Senate  Committee  on  Agriculture,  said: 
"  Struggle,  toil,  and  suffer  as  he  may,  each  recurring 
year  has  brought  to  him  smaller  reward  for  his  labor, 
until  to-day,  surrounded  by  the  most  wonderful  pro- 
gress and  development  the  world  has  ever  witnessed, 
he  is  confronted  and  appalled  with  impending  bank- 
ruptcy and  ruin.  We  protest,  and  with  all  reverence, 
that  it  is  not  God's  fault.  We  protest  that  it  is  not 
the  farmers'  fault.  We  believe  and  so  charge  sol- 

c5 

emnly  and  deliberately,  that  it  is  the  fault  of  the 
financial  system  of  the  Government  that  has  placed 
on  agriculture  an  undue,  unjust,  and  intolerable  pro- 
portion of  the  burdens  of  taxation." 

The  free  trader  argues  that  a  tax  is  levied  to  pro- 
tect the  American  mill-owner  from  the  competition 
of  the  American  farmer.  "The  15,000  protected 
mill-owners,"  says  John  De  Witt  Miller,  "  and  the 
2,000,000  farmers  are  fighting  one  another  for  the 
home  market  for  manufactured  goods  —  the  mill- 
owners  to  get  it  all ;  the  fanners  for  a  share  of  it.  If 


IO2   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  mill-owners  gain  it  all,  the  2,000,000  farmers  must 
abandon  their  land  and  find  other  work." 

The  farmer  is  producing  more  food  than  he  can 
sell  under  the  present  system.  There  are  thousands 
of  hungry  men  and  women  in  need  of  this  food,  but 
they  cannot  buy  it  because  they  cannot  find  work  to 
earn  the  requisite  money  to  buy  it.  The  trouble  is 
that  the  tariff  on  raw  material  is  so  high  that  we  can- 
not make  goods  cheap  enough  to  sell  in  competition 
with  foreigners.  Mr.  Miller  continues  :  "  The  policy 
of  these  high-tariff  promoters  is  to  have  the  people 
of  this  country  forced  by  law  to  buy  of  them,  so  that, 
charging  whatever  they  please,  they  can  make  a 
large  profit  on  the  comparatively  small  amount  they 
can  sell  at  high  prices  to  our  own  people.  The  low 
tariff  (or  free  raw  materials)  manufacturers,  taking 
the  opposite  view,  want  as  cheap  raw  materials  as 
possible,  so  that  they  can  make  large  quantities  of 
goods  at  low  cost,  and,  commanding  the  markets  of 
the  world,  get  large  gains  by  immense  sales  —  even 
at  low  profit  margin.  Both  are  intelligently  selfish  - 
the  one  in  his  narrowness,  the  other  in  his  enterprise. 
Neither  is  studying  the  interests  of  the  farmer.  He 
must  look  out  for  himself.  No  one  else  will.  So 
far  he  has  supported  by  his  vote  the  high-tariff 
policy.  He  is  now  feeling  its  results.  The  cost  to 
him  of  protection  and  the  dark  outlook  for  his 
future  are  significant." 

Free  raw  materials  are  urged  on  several  grounds, 
as  for  instance,  that  they  would  decrease  the  average 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  103 

cost  of  transport  of  products  to  the  markets  where 
their  price  is  fixed  on  account  of  the  iron  tariff. 
Free  raw  materials  would  decrease  the  cost  to  the 
farmer  of  all  the  manufactured  articles  he  buys  for 
his  farm  or  for  his  family,  and  in  effect  would  afford 
them  higher  prices  for  what  they  have  to  sell.  They 
would  enable  American  manufacturers  to  make 
goods  costing  less  than  any  to  be  found  elsewhere, 
thus  securing  the  world's  markets,  and  largely  in- 
creasing their  force  of  skilled  labor. 

That  ardent  free  trader,  Thomas  G.  Shearman,  in 
a  letter  to  Grover  Cleveland,  wrote  :  "  Can  there  be 
the  smallest  doubt  that  if  the  protective  duties  were 
repealed  and  the  tariff  brought  down  to  the  level  of 
1860,  American  farmers  and  planters  would  find  new 
customers  in  Europe  to  the  full  extent  of  $800,- 
000,000  every  year?  There  is  none.  Mr.  Rusk 
(Secretary  of  Agriculture  when  this  letter  was  writ- 
ten in  1892)  has  officially  stated  that  there  are  150,- 
000,000  in  Europe  who  never  eat  wheaten  bread. 
Other  protectionist  orators  have  asserted,  truly 
enough,  that  more  than  150,000,000  Europeans  never 
eat  meat  more  than  twice  a  week.  Probably  50,000,- 
ooo  do  not  eat  a  piece  of  meat,  worthy  of  the  name, 
more  than  twice  a  month.  Is  this  because  these 
poor  people  do  not  want  bread  and  meat  ?  Not  at 
all.  Nine-tenths  of  them  would  be  glad  of  all  which 
they  could  get.  They  are  hindered  only  by  their 
poverty  ;  and  their  poverty  is  caused  only  by  their 
inability  to  find  customers  for  the  things  they  pro- 


IO4   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

duce.  Open  markets  for  their  products,  and  they 
will  furnish  boundless  markets  for  American  produc- 
tions." 

The  claim  is  frequently  advanced,  too,  that  in- 
creased imports  do  not  mean  idle  factories,  and  that 
foreign  manufactures  are  imported  almost  exclusively 
for  use  in  the  higher  branches  of  American  manu- 
factures, such  as  materials  for  the  tailor,  the  dress- 
maker, the  milliner,  the  shoemaker,  the  wagonmaker, 
and  so  on.  One  supporter  of  free  trade  has  dryly 
remarked,  that  the  protectionists  have  killed  our 
shipping,  so  that  we  have  to  export  enough  more 
than  we  import  to  pay  the  Englishman  for  freight 
both  ways. 

Naturally  the  tariff  reformers  have  in  readiness  as 
many  objections  to  urge  against  protection  as  they 
have  arguments  in  favor  of  their  pet  system. 
Among  these  objections  is  the  salient  one  that  pro- 
tection gives  special  encouragement  to  certain  indus- 
tries at  the  expense  and  sacrifice  of  others  and  tends 
to  build  up  unprofitable  industries,  thereby  involving 
the  discouragement  of  self-supporting  ones.  Again, 
that  its  principal  burdens  fall  upon  the  wage-earners, 
to  whom  it  increases  the  cost  of  living,  thus  reducing 
the  purchasing  power  of  their  earnings  and  effec- 
tively reducing  wages.  It  is  directly  opposed  to  and 
nullified  by  every  advance  of  science,  which  either 
facilitates  production  or  cheapens  transportation,  and 
in  so  far  as  it  represents  a  principle,  is  the  negative 
of  positive  enterprise,  charity,  humanity,  and  religion. 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.     .        105 

Further,  in  the  language  of  J.  DeVVitt  Miller: 
"  Its  precepts  are  those  against  which  our  commer- 
cial instincts  and  our  moral  conscience  so  revolt,  that 
our  citizens  in  general  of  the  highest  standard,  pro- 
tectionists and  free  traders  alike,  are  unconscious  of 
any  trespass  in  the  violation  of  the  tariff  laws.  By 
the  extension  of  protection  to  raw  materials,  espe- 
cially to  such  as  are  natural  to  the  soil,  lumber,  coal, 
the  ores  of  iron,  copper,  lead,  tin,  etc.,  the  very  gifts 
of  Providence  to  this  people,  which  should  have 
assured  to  our  fortunate  citizens  an  ample  supply  at 
cheaper  rates  than  to  less  favored  nations,  are  made 
a  curse  instead  of  a  blessing  to  the  masses  of  our 
people.  That  our  export  trade,  our  only  safety- 
valve  against  over-production  and  industrial  paralysis 
is  thereby  obstructed.  It  is  the  chief  breeder  among 
us  of  the  cursed  trinity  —  the  tariff,  the  trust,  and  the 
tramp.  It  accustoms  every  industry  and  every  indi- 
vidual to  expect  from  legislation  such  aid  as  he  may 
convince  it  is  necessary  to  make  his  business  a  profit- 
able one,  and  thus  instigates  the  most  offensive 
form  of  communism.  It  makes  the  interest  of  a 
citizen  in  his  Government  that  of  a  specially  pecuni- 
ary one,  which,  in  proportion  to  his  wealth  and  claim, 
he  promotes  by  fair  means  or  foul,  instead  of  a  gen- 
eral patriotic  one  in  line  with  the  common  weal. 
Even  if  a  tariff  were  possible  which  should  equitably 
and  equally  protect  all  of  the  industries  of  a  country 
(and  the  objection  that  the  result  would  simply  be  to 
leave  each  where  it  would  be,  if  not  interfered  with, 


IO6   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

be  waived),  there  is  no  prospect  of  such  a  tariff  be- 
ing enacted,  or  any  prospect  that  any  tariff  enacted 
will  not  be  constructed  by  private  greed  and  made 
law  by  log-rolling  connivance.  And  lastly,  if  other 
obstacles  to  a  perfect  tariff  were  done  away  with,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  apply  the  protective  principle, 
except  upon  the  self-destructive  theory,  that  its  re- 
sult is  to  sacrifice  certain  sections  of  the  country  to 
the  welfare  of  certain  other  portions.  In  the  very 
nature  of  things  a  tariff  is  bounded  by  natural  lines. 
But  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania 
are  more  identical  than  are  any  other  States  in  the 
world,  in  the  nature  of  population,  the  character  of 
their  wonderfully  varied  products,  and  the  extent  of 
their  mutual  trade.  So  that  we  have  here  the  very 
conditions,  which,  were  each  State  to  consult  its  own 
interests,  the  same  protectionists  must  insist  were 
fatal  to  its  prosperity." 

Such  is  the  most  forceful  arraignment  yet  brought 
against  protection,  and  such  are  some  of  the  count- 
less arguments  educed  by  the  lovers  of  free  trade. 
The  reader,  however,  should  carefully  peruse  the 
succeeding  chapter  on  "The  Protection  Point  of 
View"  before  making  certain  in  his  own  judgment 
and  consciousness  which  is  the  preferable  system  for 
the  United  States, 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 


THE  PROJECTION  POINT  OF  VIEW. 
The  first  definite  argument  in  favor  of  a  pro- 
nounced protective  system  was  enunciated  in  this 
country  by  Alexander  Hamilton,  and  it  has  never 
been  stated  better  since  by  the  many  statesmen  and 
orators  and  writers  who  have  been  identified  with  it. 
Some  of  the  reasons  given  by  Mr.  Hamilton  in  sup- 
port of  his  recommendations  were  these  :  "  The 
embarrassments  which  have  obstructed  the  progress 
of  our  external  trade  have  led  to  serious  reflections 
on  the  necessity  of  enlarging  the  sphere  of  our 
domestic  commerce.  The  restrictive  regulations 
which,  in  foreign  markets,  abridge  the  vent  for  the 
increasing  supply  of  our  agricultural  produce,  serve 
to  beget  an  earnest  desire  that  a  more  extensive 
demand  for  that  surplus  may  be  created  at  home,  and 
the  complete  success  which  has  rewarded  manufac- 
turing enterprise  in  some  valuable  branches,  conspir- 
ing with  the  promising  symptoms  which  attend  some 
less  mature  essays  in  others,  justify  a  hope  that  the 
obstacles  to  a  growth  of  this  species  of  industry  are 
less  formidable  than  they  were  apprehended  to  be, 
and  that  it  may  not  be  difficult  to  find  in  its  further 
extension  a  full  indemnification  for  any  external  dis 
advantages  which  are,  or  may  be  experienced,  as 
well  as  an  accession  of  resources  favorable  to 
national  independence  and  safety.  *  *  *  If  the 
system  of  perfect  liberty  to  industry  and  commerce 
were  the  prevailing  system  of  nations,  the  arguments 


IO8  A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

which  dissuade  a  country  in  the  predicament  of  the 
United  States  from  the  zealous  pursuit  of  manufac- 
tures would,  doubtless,  have  great  force.  But  the 
system  which  has  been  mentioned  is  far  from  charac- 
terizing the  general  policy  of  nations.  The  preva- 
lent one  has  been  regulated  by  an  opposite  spirit. 
The  consequence  of  it  is  that  the  United  States  are, 
to  a  certain  extent,  in  the  situation  of  a  country  pre- 
cluded from  foreign  commerce.  They  can,  indeed, 
without  difficulty,  obtain  from  abroad  the  manufac- 
tured supplies  of  which  they  are  in  want,  but  they 
experience  numerous  and  very  injurious  impediments 
to  emission  and  vent  of  their  own  commodities.  Nor 
is  this  the  case  in  reference  to  a  single  foreign  nation 
only.  The  regulations  of  several  countries  with 
which  we  have  the  most  extensive  intercourse  throw 
serious  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  principal  staples 
of  the  United  States.  In  such  a  position  of  things 
the  United  States  cannot  exchange  with  Europe  on 
equal  terms,  and  the  want  of  reciprocity  would 
render  them  the  victim  of  a  system  which  would 
induce  them  to  confine  their  views  to  agriculture 
and  refrain  from  manufactures.  A  constant  and 
increasing  necessity  on  their  part  for  the  commod- 
ities of  Europe  and  only  a  partial  and  occasional 
demand  for  their  own  in  return,  could  not  but  expose 
them  to  a  state  of  impoverishment  compared  with 
the  opulence  to  which  their  political  and  natural 
advantages  authorize  them  to  aspire." 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  IOQ 

Certain  men  of  influence  contended  that  Mr. 
Hamilton's  suggestion  for  the  extension  of  manufac- 
tures was  unwise,  because  agriculture  was  the  most 
productive  industry,  and,  as  the  population  was  so 
small,  it  would  be  wrong  to  divert  any  labor  from 
the  pursuit  of  farming  which  would  thereby  suffer. 
These  opponents  also  maintained  that  there  was  not 
sufficient  capital  in  the  country  to  successfully  en- 
gage in  manufacturing ;  that  in  any  event  we  could 
not  compete  with  Europe,  and  finally,  if  manufactur- 
ing were  established,  it  would  necessarily  result  in 
monopoly.  Mr.  Hamilton  refuted  these  arguments 
by  showing  the  advantages  that  would  accrue  from 
diversified  labor.  He  demonstrated  conclusively 
that  agriculture  would  not  suffer,  but  be  benefited 
by  the  introduction  of  manufactures,  which  would 
furnish  a  broader  field  for  enterprise  and  attract  im- 
migrants to  our  shores,  thus  increasing  our  popula- 
tion. The  latter  result  would  enlarge  the  market  for 
our  home  products.  He  argued  in  favor  of  a  home 
market  as  being  more  reliable  than  a  foreign  one, 
and  he  held  that  it  should  be  the  first  object  of  our 
national  policy  to  supply  the  people  with  all  the 
means  of  subsistence  from  their  own  soil,  and  that 
they  should  establish  manufactures  in  order  to  pro- 
cure from  the  same  source  the  raw  materials  neces- 
sary for  their  own  fabrics. 

When  John  Adams  succeeded  to  the  Presidency 
the  country  had  already  begun  to  experience  some 
of  the  benefits  of  its  tariff  system.  Agriculture  was 


IIO   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

prospering  and  commerce  rapidly  increasing.  New 
manufacturing  enterprises  were  springing  up  and  the 
ship-building  industry  was  beginning  to  get  a  foot- 
hold in  several  Atlantic  States. 

Previous  to  1 791  the  trade  of  the  country  had  been 
in  any  thing  but  a  satisfactory  condition.  For  the 
seven  years  preceding  that  date  our  imports  exceeded 
our  exports  by  over  $52,000,000.  Shortly  afterward 
a  change  began  to  take  place  and  within  a  few  years 
the  trade  figures  began  to  show  a  substantial  balance 
in  favor  of  the  United  States,  which  they  have 
happily  continued  to  retain,  with  few  exceptions,  to 
the  present  hour.  For  the  seven  years  between 
1795  and  1801,  our  exports  exceeded  our  imports  by 
more  than  $89,000,000.  This  showing  was  naturally 
distasteful  to  England.  She  saw  the  possibilities  of 
serious  inroads  upon  her  own  commerce  in  the  grow- 
ing importance  of  American  trade.  American  mer- 
chants had  profited  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  liberal 
policy  in  operation  during  the  war  period  in  Europe, 
but  on  the  return  of  peace,  in  1801,  restrictive  system 
was  revived  in  Europe.  The  peace  was  of  short 
duration,  and  when  hostilities  were  renewed,  Ameri- 
can commerce  became  so  seriously  affected  that  it 
was  found  necessary  to  adopt  retaliatory  measures. 
In  1805  the  importation  of  British  manufactures  was 
prohibited ;  a  few  years  later  the  Berlin  decrees  of 
Napoleon,  and  the  orders  in  council  of  England, 
practically  closed  the  ports  of  Europe  to  neutral  ves- 
sels, and  American  ship-owners  received  a  great  set 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  Ill 

back.  Some  measure  of  relief  was  obtained  by  the 
embargo  laws  of  1808,  which  were  followed  by  the 
non-intercourse  laws.  The  latter  gave  considerable 
impetus  to  American  manufactures,  because  the 
people,  being  prevented  from  obtaining  European 
supplies,  were  forced  to  make  most  of  their  goods  at 
home.  Manufacturing  industries  were  rendered 
more  secure  by  the  doubling  of  all  import  duties, 
which  was  done  as  a  war  measure. 

Passing  over  the  disastrous  Low-Tariff  Act  of  1 8 1 6, 
we  come  to  the  Protective  Tariff  of  1824,  a  sadly 
needed  relief  measure,  which  proved  beneficial  to  all 
classes.  In  a  speech,  delivered  in  1888,  Hon.  James 
G.  Elaine  said  of  this  act  :  tl  The  change  was  as  great 
as  was  wrought  in  the  financial  condition  of  the 
United  States  when  Hamilton  smote  the  rock  of 
public  credit  and  abundant  streams  of  revenue 
gushed  forth." 

In  1828  still  higher  protection  was  imposed.  By 
this  time  the  South  had  begun  to  squirm.  Mr.  Cal- 
houn,  defeated  in  his  presidential  aspirations,  had 
changed  his  mind  in  regard  to  the  merits  of  protec- 
tion and  took  his  stand  in  defense  of  slavery  and 
free  trade.  Then  succeeded  the  Compromise  Tariff 
Bill  of  1833,  with  its  downward  sliding  scale  of  ten 
years.  In  its  wake  came  financial  calamities  and  the 
frightful  panic  of  1837.  The  farming  interest  suf- 
fered even  more  than  it  had  during  the  period  be- 
tween 1816-1824.  Men  were  either  out  of  work  or 
slaving  for  twenty-five  cents  a  day  or  less.  In  1840 


112   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  people  defeated  Van  Buren  and  put  in  General 
Harrison.  "  The  fruit  of  the  Whig  triumph  was  the 
Protective  Tariff  of  1842  which  held  the  same  relation 
to  the  Compromise  Tariff  of  1833  that  the  Protective 
Tariff  of  1824  held  to  the  Tariff  of  1816.  After  the 
act  of  1842  industrial  pursuits  quickened.  Robert  J. 
Walker's  Free  Trade  Tariff  Bill  of  1846  was  placed  up- 
on the  statute  book  by  the  casting  vote  of  Vice- Presi- 
dent Dallas.  Then  ensued  the  free  trade  period, 
which  is  referred  to  with  such  swelling  pride  by  free 
trade  votaries.  It  is  true  that  a  remarkable  decade 
of  prosperity  followed  the  adoption  of  the  Walker 
Tariff,  but  we  must  look  beyond  that  measure  for  the 
real  and  unsuspected  cause  of  those  good  times. 
Soon  after  its  passage  our  Government  declared 
war  against  Mexico,  Our  arms  and  military  muni- 
tions were  very  scanty  at  the  time  and  new  supplies 
had  to  be  provided  and  paid  for.  This  of  itself 
put  in  circulation  more  than  $100,000,000  through- 
out the  nation.  Another  adventitious  circumstance 
in  stimulating  trade  was  the  terrible  famine  in  Ire- 
land, which  created  a  strenuous  demand  for  all 
our  surplus  grain,  potatoes,  etc.,  the  large  proceeds 
of  which  went  largely  to  our  agricultural  popu- 
lation. 

The  European  revolutions,  beginning  in  1848,  were 
especially  advantageous  to  the  American  manufac- 
turer as  importations  greatly  diminished,  and  thus 
was  created  an  immense  demand  for  our  goods. 
Near  the  close  of  1849  another  factor  enhanced  the 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  113 

national  welfare,  namely,  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
California,  which  we  had  acquired  only  a  few  months 
previously  from  Mexico.  For  six  years  or  more 
streams  of  wealth  poured  from  the  Pacific  slope  at 
the  rate  of  not  less  than  $55,000,000  a  year.  Our 
apparent  prosperity  was  also  augmented  by  the 
Crimean  war,  which  gave  us  a  market  for  our  agri- 
cultural surplus  at  advanced  prices. 

But  when  all  these  aids  ceased  after  ten  years  of 
free  trade,  our  prosperity,  which  had  been  purely  acci- 
dental, suddenly  waned,  and  in  the  spring  of  1857 
Congress  passed  a  brief  tariff  act  lowering  the  duties 
still  further,  so  that  our  people  had  a  tariff  that 
brought  us  in  direct  competition  with  the  low  price 
labor  of  Europe.  Stupendous  panic  came  in  the 
same  year  as  the  direct  result.  Then  followed  four 
years  of  "  rocky  times,"  and  in  truth  the  country  did 
not  revive  until  after  the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln 
and  the  enactment  of  the  Morrill  Tariff,  which  was  the 
foundation  upon  which  has  been  reared  the  present 
tariff  system  of  the  country.  To  quote  from  Mr. 
Elaine:  "  At  no  time  in  our  country's  history  has  the 
United  States  ever  recovered  from  the  financial  de- 
pression caused  by  a  low  tariff  until  a  protective 
tariff  was  enacted  to  take  its  place.  The  Tariff  of 
1824  relieved  the  long  suffering  that  followed  from 
the  hasty  lowering  of  duties  in  the  Tariff  of  1816. 
The  Tariff  of  1842  revived  the  country  after  the  com- 
promise and  destructive  Tariff  of  1833,  an<^  tne  Tariff 
of  1 86 1  introduced  a  prosperous  era  after  the  tre- 


114   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

mendous  convulsion  of  1857,  which  was  caused  by 
the  perfidiously  enacted  Tariff  of  1846." 

What  are  the  advantages  of  a  protective  tariff  to 
the  labor  and  industries  of  the  United  States?  Un- 
doubtedly, had  we  not  early  in  our  national  history 
adopted  the  protective  system,  there  would  be  now 
an  undue  proportion  of  agriculturalists,  with  few,  if 
any,  important  manufacturing  interests.  In  such  cir- 
cumstances we  could  not  make  much  of  a  showing  of 
civilization  and  advancement.  Retrogression  would 
be  wretchedly  evident  everywhere  throughout  this 
broad  land. 

We  seldom  hear  any  suggestions  as  to  what  shall 
be  prescribed  to  correct  the  alleged  evils  of  the  pro- 
tective system,  which,  it  is  claimed  by  free  traders, 
confers  all  of  its  benefits  upon  a  privileged  class. 
This  is  simply  preposterous,  and  proof  is  accessible 
on  every  hand  that  protective  tariffs  have  served  to 
distribute  commercial  opportunities  among  the  whole 
people,  diffused  labor,  developed  our  marvellous  re- 
sources, and  encouraged  our  multiform  industries. 

The  largest  percentage  of  our  exports  is  furnished 
by  agriculture.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
foreign  market  is  limited,  because  foreign  competi- 
tion is  strong  and  constantly  on  the  increase.  The 
wheat  of  Russia,  Australia,  India,  and  South  America 
competes  in  Europe  with  the  wheat  of  the  United 
States.  And  this  fact  suggests  the  unanswerable 
proposition  that,  if  all  the  labor  and  capital  be  ex- 
erted on  the  land,  all  our  agricultural  surplus  can 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  115 

never  find  a  market.  It  is  obvious  that  the  overpro- 
duction in  agricultural  produce  is  due  to  the  employ- 
ment of  too  much  labor  and  capital  in  agriculture. 
But  these  conditions  have  a  tendency  to  adjust  them- 
selves, or,  at  least,  men  are  coming  to  understand  bet- 
ter than  ever  before,  that  when  an  agricultural  glut 
occurs,  the  wise  thing  to  do  is  to  divert  their  atten- 
tion and  energies  to  something  else. 

The  tariff  has  enabled  the  labor  and  capital  of 
the  nation  to  produce  the  maximum  of  wealth. 
Who  of  us  does  not  wonder  at  the  extent  of  our 
manufacturing  industries?  "Were  Alexander  Ham- 
ilton, the  prophet  of  protection,  to  appear  among  us 
to-day  and  make  a  second  report  on  American  manu- 
facture, he  would  behold  a  development  of  which  he 
never  dreamed.  He  would  see  the  seventeen 
branches  of  manufactures  that  struggled  for  exist- 
ence in  his  day  increased  in  less  than  a  century  to 
more  than  three  hundred;  he  would  see  the  vast 
laboratories  of  nature  explored  and  the  elements 
turned  to  the  service  of  man  ;  he  would  see  on  all 
our  rivers  those  grand  palaces  of  the  arts  which  fill 
the  air  with  the  hum  of  myriad  wheels.  Astounded, 
he  would  survey  those  busy  hives  of  industry  —  now 
the  rivals,  and  soon  to  be  the  victors  of  their  Euro- 
pean prototypes  —  Paterson,  the  American  Lyons  ; 
Trenton,  the  American  Burslem  ;  Waltham,  the 
American  Geneva  ;  and  Philadelphia,  the  American 
Manchester." 


Il6   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

"  Better  fifty  years  of  Europe  than  a  cycle  of 
Cathay,"  sang  Tennyson.  We  are  inclined  to  say 
better  ten  years  of  the  United  States  than  fifty  years 
of  Europe,  thanks  to  the  triumphant  protective 
system. 

The  price  of  a  foreign  article  is  increased  by  a 
protective  tariff  to  the  amou«nt  of  the  increased  cost 
of  production  of  the  domestic  article.  By  reason  of 
the  tariff,  therefore,  the  same  price  governs  the 
foreign  and  domestic  article,  thus  rendering  prices 
stable  for  the  home  producer,  and  furnishing  the 
whole  amount  denied  to  the  home  consumer.  On 
this  mooted  point  the  Hon.  George  F.  Edmunds  has 
produced  a  succinct  argument.  "If,"  he  says,  "the 
profits  of  the  foreign  manufacturer  or  producer  are 
essentially  diminished  by  customs  duties,  and  are 
essentially  increased  by  the  diminution  or  abolition 
thereof,  then,  so  far,  the  money  obtained  from  them 
is  not  by  taxation  of  our  own  people,  but  by  taxation 
of  the  foreigners  ;  and  if  the  surplus  revenues  are  to 
be  reduced  by  the  abolition  or  reduction  of  the  cus- 
toms duties,  so  far  they  are  reduced,  not  for  the 
benefit  of  our  own  people,  but  to  the  benefit  of  peo- 
ple of  other  countries  who  are  the  exporters  of 
goods  to  our  markets.  This  is  well  illustrated  by 
our  experience  in  the  abolition  of  the  duties  upon 
tea  and  coffee  in  the  year  1872.  Before  this  aboli- 
tion there  had  come  into  the  Treasury  many  millions 
of  dollars  a  year  as  duties  from  these  two  articles  (in 
1870-1  there  were  over  twenty-two  millions),  neither 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  I  I  J 

of  which  was  produced  in  the  United  States,  and  so 
it  was  supposed  that  these  articles  would  be  cheap- 
ened to  the  consumers,  and  that  no  injury  could  be 
done  to  any  domestic  interest  by  their  abolition. 
And  this  was  partly  true,  so  far  as  its  direct  effect 
was  concerned,  but  there  ceased  to  come  into  the 
common  treasury  from  fifteen  to  twenty  millions  of 
dollars  a  year,  while  the  consumers  of  tea  and  coffee 
paid  substantially  the  same  or  higher  prices  for  these 
things  than  they  did  before,  and  the  net  result  was 
that  our  Treasury  gave  up  to  foreign  producers  and 
operators  that  number  of  millions  of  money,  without 
any  advantage  whatever  to  us,  except  that  the  Treas- 
ury was  by  that  sum  depleted."  Mr.  Edmunds  fur- 
ther remarks  that  it  seems  to  be  clear  that  it  is  not 
true,  in  a  general  sense,  that  customs  duties  are,  as  a 
whole,  or  in  the  greater  part  a  tax  or  burden  upon  the 
domestic  consumer.  Nearly  all  of  the  principal  pro- 
ducts of  the  United  States  are  protected  and  every  one 
interested  in  them  is  benefited  by  such  protection. 
The  agriculturist  is  protected  in  respect  of  his  cattle, 
his  wheat,  his  oats,  his  butter,  etc.,  just  as  his  neigh- 
bor, the  manufacturer,  is  protected  in  respect  of  iron  or 
his  cotton  cloth,  and  each,  therefore,  contributes  in  due 
proportion  to  the  common  good  of  all  by  the  employ- 
ment of  all  manufacturing  resources  near  to  the  places 
of  the  production  of  the  wool,  the  cotton  and  the  iron 
which  furnish  the  materials  and  furnish  useful  occu- 
pations to  large  numbers  of  the  population,  who,  in 
their  turn,  consume  the  products  of  the  farm  sub- 


Il8   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

stantially  at  the  places  of  origin.  The  statement  is 
frequently  made,  but  it  is  erroneous,  that  the  tariff 
develops  the  manufacturing  industries  at  the  ex- 
pense of  agriculture  and  commerce.  Has  not  the 
tariff  given  to  American  agriculture  a  better  market 
at  home  than  it  could  possibly  find  abroad  ?  Does 
not  the  factory  remove  from  the  soil  those  super- 
fluous farmers  whose  labor  causes  a  glut,  and  results 
not  in  wealth  but  in  waste?  Crawford  D.  Hening 
cleverly  and  logically  argues  that  under  protection 
the  farmer  exchanges  his  produce  with  the  domestic 
instead  of  the  foreign  mechanic.  This  is  manifestly 
to  the  farmer's  advantages,  for  the  domestic  mechanic 
consumes  the  manufactures  of  other  domestic  me- 
chanics, who  in  their  turn  consume  the  farmers'  pro- 
duce, and  thus  increase  the  home  market.  But  the 
foreign  mechanic  consumes  foreign  manufactures, 
and  that  confers  no  additional  benefit  on  the  farmer. 
Nobody  ever  thinks  of  disputing  that  the  tariff  has 
been  mainly  the  mainstay  of  our  gigantic  internal 
commerce.  The  railroad  mileage  in  the  United  States 
is  now  equal  to  that  of  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  Many 
other  references  could  be  made  to  the  mammoth 
proportions  that  have  been  attained  by  our  domestic 
trade. 

The  tariff  has  done  much  to  ameliorate  the  condi- 
tion of  the  workingman  from  what  it  was  a  century 
ago.  In  preceding  pages  statistics  were  furnished 
which  show  that  the  general  rate  of  wages  was  lower 
by  one-half  than  at  present. 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  119 

Senator  S.  M.  Cullom,  in  a  magazine  article,  has 
gone  so  far  as  to  assert  that  the  farmer  has  received 
more  benefit  than  any  one  else  from  protection.  In 
the  first  place  his  competition  has  been  very  appreci- 
ably reduced  by  the  tariff,  which  has  induced  many 
people  to  engage  in  manufacturing  and  mining  in- 
stead of  farming.  Nor  is  the  farmer  robbed  for  the 
benefit  of  the  protected  manufacturer,  as  the  free 
traders  fallaciously  assert.  With  few  exceptions, 
there  is  no  single  article  which  the  farmer  consumes 
which  is  not  cheaper  than  it  was  under  the  revenue 
tariff,  and  cheaper  than  it  would  be  to-day  if  it  were 
not  for  the  development  of  home  industries  by  pro- 
tective tariffs.  His  food,  his  clothing,  his  household 
goods  and  furniture,  his  house,  his  barn,  his  imple- 
ments, tools  and  fences,  are  all  cheaper,  while  every 
thing  he  produces  sells  for  more  and  his  land  has 
trebled  or  quadrupled  in  value. 

Now,  as  to  the  question  whether  free  raw  materials 
be  advantageous  to  the  labor  and  industries  of  the 

O 

United  States  much  may  be  said  in  the  negative. 
The  basis  of  our  industry  may  be  formed  of  materials 
which  are  the  finished  product  of  another.  Thus, 
cotton,  the  raw  material  of  the  manufacturer  of  cot- 
tons, is  the  finished  product  of  the  Southern  farmer. 
"  Lumber  is  the  finished  product  of  the  lumberman, 
and  trees  in  the  forest  his  raw  material." 

Henry  C.  Carey,  the  distinguished  American  econ- 
omist, gives  the  following  definition  :  "  All  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  earth  are  in  turn  finished  commodity 


J2O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

and  raw  material.  Coal  and  ore  the  finished  com- 
modity of  the  miner,  but  the  raw  material  of  pig  iron. 
The  latter  is  the  finished  commodity  of  the  smelter, 
yet  only  the  raw  material  of  the  puddler  and  of  him 
who  rolls  the  bar.  The  bar  is  again  the  raw  material 
of  sheet  iron,  and  that,  in  turn,  becomes  the  raw 
material  of  the  nail  and  spike." 

Certain  it  is  that  if  the  United  States  pursued  a 
free  trade  policy  in  raw  materials,  the  only  way  it 
could  hold  her  own  markets  would  be  to  undersell 
her  cheap  land  and  cheap  labor  foreign  competitors. 
This  competition  would  not  be  solely  confined  to 
grain  and  vegetable  products,  but  would  extend  to 
animals  and  their  products.  The  materials  of  manu- 
facture, such  as  the  wool-growing  industry,  would  be 
similarly  affected.  With  free  raw  wool,  the  labor 
employed  in  this  industry  would  be  forced  into  other 
lines  of  activity.  Likewise  would  capital  thus  em- 
ployed seek  other  fields  of  investment.  The  effect 
of  free  raw  materials  upon  our  mining  industries 
and  the  labor  engaged  therein,  would  be  not  only 
detrimental  but  destructive  in  the  long  run.  The 
reason  we  are  unable  to  compete  successfully,  in 
spite  of  our  extensive  mineral  resources,  with  other 
mineral  producing  countries  without  the  aid  of  a 
tariff  is  this  :  "  More  than  half  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion of  coal,  coke  and  iron  is  in  the  wages  paid  labor. 
The  average  wages  of  those  thus  employed  in  Great 
Britain  are  $1.02  per  working  day  of  nine  hours. 
In  the  United  States  they  are  $1.64  for  an  equal 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  121 

number  of  hours.  This  is  an  advantage  of  more 
than  sixty  per  .cent  in  the  labor  cost  alone  in  favor 
of  Great  Britain.  With  open  competition  our  min- 
ing industries  could  not  thrive  unless  conditions 
were  equalized  by  reducing  our  wages  to  the  Euro- 
pean level.  Such  reduction  would  not  give  to  our 
mining  industries  greater  prosperity  than  they  now 
enjoy,  and  the  effect  upon  wage-earners  is  too  appar- 
ent to  need  mention."  So  far  as  free  raw  materials 
and  commerce  are  concerned,  there  would  doubtless 
result  an  increased  activity  in  foreign  shipping. 
Less  than  twenty  per  cent  of  the  total  tonnage 
of  the  United  States  is  engaged  in  the  carry- 
ing trade,  the  major  portion  of  it  being  engaged 
in  the  coastwise  and  fishery  trade.  The  great  pur- 
pose of  protection  is  to  so  diversify  the  four  chief 
branches  of  industry  that  each  will  attain  to  its  high- 
est development  and  provide  for  our  twenty  or  more 
millions  of  workers  equal  opportunities  of  produc- 
tion. It  has  been  shown,  time  and  time  again,  that 
this  cannot  be  satisfactorily  accomplished  under  free 
trade  auspices.  According  to  that  able  thinker, 
Homer  B.  Dibbell,  "  those  parts  of  the  United  States 
which  have  the  most  varied  industry  show  a  higher 
annual  income  to  the  farmer,  and  greater  returns  to 
farm  laborers.  Some  sections  of  our  country,  not- 
ably the  south,  in  which  a  single  industry  has  been 
dominant,  have  not  acquired  the  wealth  which  has 
come  to  other  sections,  nor  is  the  wealth  so  widely 
distributed.  These  sections,  with  rich  mineral  depos- 


122   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

its  and  extensive  forests,  have  clung  to  agriculture 
and  neglected  their  other  resources.  Those  who 
look  for  a  new  South,  if  they  find  it  at  all,  will  find  it 
upon  the  basis  of  a  new  industrial  organization, 
brought  about  largely  by  the  protection  afforded  to 
her  raw  materials."  A  low  standard  of  living  is  the 
inevitable  sequence  of  low  wages,  and  low  wages  are 
the  necessary  outcome  of  free  trade,  and  we  have 
but  to  point  to  England  in  illustration  of  these  iron- 
clad facts.  We  produce  somewhat  more  food  pro- 
ducts than  we  consume,  and  furnish  the  greater  part 
of  the  raw  materials  of  manufacture. 

It  is  well  enough,  in  view  of  this,  to  admit  free  the 
raw  materials  which  we  do  not,  or  practically  cannot, 
produce,  and  which  do  not  displace  our  American 
products.  But  "  free  competing  raw  materials  can 
confer  no  advantage  upon  the  labor  and  industries  of 
the  United  States  which  are  not  counterbalanced  by 
attendant  disadvantages."  The  farmer's  products 
are  themselves  raw  materials ;  hence,  agriculture 
would  not  be  enhanced  by  free  raw  materials.  Nor 
would  they  help  the  other  great  industries  for  reasons 
suggested  above.  The  permanent  prosperity  of  the 
United  States  requires  a  policy  which  will  afford  labor 
"  the  largest  possibilities  of  varied  employment,"  and 
give  to  our  raw  materials  such  protection  as  will  be 
sufficient  to  meet  the  competition  of  foreign  countries 
that  possess  superior  facilities  for  cheap  production. 

The  free  trader  denies  the  protectionist  claim  that 
production,  both  in  quality  and  quantity,  is  increased 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  123 

by  diversity  of  employment.  He  also  denies  that 
by  the  laws  of  trade,  as  production  is  increased,  the 
commodity  is  cheapened,  "  either  directly,  by  a  de- 
cline in  price,  or  indirectly,  by  an  increased  purchas- 
ing power  of  other  commodities.  It  is  just  as  diffi- 
cult for  him  to  concede  that  protection,  while  tending 
to  develop  and  maintain  this  diversity  of  industry,  at 
the  same  time  increases  capital  and  wages.  Yet  all 
these  results  have  been  verified  in  the  experience  of 
nations  that  have  really  tested  the  principles  of  pro- 
tection. John  Stuart  Mill's  famous  declaration : 
"  That  a  country  will  seldom  have  a  productive  agri- 
culture unless  it  has  a  large  town  population,"  has 
evoked  from  Mr.  C.  D.  Todd  the  pertinent  query  : 
"  How  can  a  country  have  a  large  town  population 
without  diversified  industries  ?  "  Mr.  Todd  adds  that 
"  an  increase  in  the  number  who  till  the  soil  cannot 
increase  the  value  of  a  bushel  of  corn.  Enlarging 
the  acreage  has  not  made  agriculture  more  profitable. 
It  has  only  increased  the  amount  of  product.  This 
increase  diminishes  demand  and,  in  the  same  de- 
gree, its  exchangeable  value.  This  value  becomes 
zero  as  the  increase  of  the  product  becomes  unre- 
muneratively  large.  The  only  way  to  restore  value 
is  to  clecrease  production  or  increase  demand.  Evi- 
dently the  latter  would  be  the  wiser  alternative." 

The  wide-awake  protectionist  firmly  adheres  to  the 
belief  that  the  tariff  plays  no  part  in  the  creation  of 
monopolies  and  trusts.  On  the  contrary,  he  is  con- 
vinced that  the  tariff,  in  increasing  the  sources  of 


124   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

supply,  renders  more  difficult  the  existence  of  monopo- 
lies and  corners.  Singularly,  England,  ever  loud  in 
her  boasts  of  being  a  free-trade  nation,  raises  next, 
after  the  United  States,  more  revenue  by  her  tariff 
than  any  other  country  in  the  world.  In  short,  Eng- 
land's vast  commercial  intercourse  and  prosperity 
were  founded  on  the  most  exacting  kind  of  protec- 
tion ;  which  she  pugnaciously  maintained  until  1846, 
when  she  repealed  her  corn  laws  and  adopted  a  tariff 
for  revenue,  which  system  it  is  her  delight  to  call 
free  trade.  A  rather  ingenious  sort  of  shrift  was 
this,  but  England  is  nothing  if  not  diplomatic. 
Hoodwinking  the  other  nations  of  the  earth  is  her 
settled  policy,  and  if  this  does  not  work,  she  often 
tries  intimidation  and  bullying.  The  Government  of 
the  United  States  understands  John  Bull  perfectly, 
and  is  not  in  the  least  alarmed  whenever  he  com- 
mences to  bluster. 

Coming  back  to  the  relation  of  the  tariff  to  the 
farmer,  the  only  sensible  course  seems  to  lie  in  the 
direction  of  more  protection  for  him  instead  of  less. 
The  agricultural  industry  is  the  foundation  of  all 
other  industries.  It  should,  therefore,  be  in  the 
most  intimate  sympathy  with  them  to  the  end  that 
the  fullest  measure  of  mutual  benefit  may  accrue. 
Cheap  labor  has  been  and  is  the  curse  of  Europe, 
and  every  American  citizen  should  deem  it  his  legiti- 
mate duty  and  right  to  ward  off  as  well  as  lies  in 
his  power  such  a  condition  among  his  countrymen. 
We  cannot  afford  to  degrade  labor  to  the  low  stand- 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  125 

ard  of  wages  that  prevail  across  the  Atlantic.  In 
protecting  home  industries  we  protect  labor  in  sev- 
eral vital  ways.  Hon.  Thomas  H.  Dudley  of  New 
Jersey,  formerly  United  States  consul  at  Liverpool, 
England,  has  been  favored  with  exceptional  oppor- 
tunities to  study  this  subject  in  its  most  complicated 
aspects,  and  the  following  is  his  summing  up:  "We 
now  import  only  about  eight  per  cent  of  the  manu- 
factured commodities  we  consume  or  use  in  this 
country.  Let  Congress  pass  such  laws  as  will  induce 
our  people  to  manufacture  here  at  home  this  eight 
per  cent  of  manufactured  commodities  which  we  now 
import  from  Europe,  and  the  effect  will  be  to  draw 
from  agriculture  a  portion  of  the  labor  now  engaged 
in  it  and  thereby  to  this  extent  to  lessen  the  quantity 
of  agricultural  products,  and  at  the  same  time  to  in- 
crease the  home  market  sufficiently  to  consume  all 
our  surplus  products.  We  should  then  be  no  longer 
dependent  upon  Europe  for  the  sale  of  our  surplus 
agricultural  products,  as  we  now  are,  and  London 
would  not  then,  as  she  does  now,  fix  the  price  at 
which  our  farmers  shall  sell  their  wheat.  The  price 
would  be  determined  here  at  home  and  regulated,  as 
it  is  with  all  other  commodities,  by  the  supply  and 
demand,  without  regard  to  the  competition  of  India 
or  any  other  country." 

THE    BILL   OF  1894. 

We   now  come  to  the  consideration  of  the  latest 
period  of  Democratic  ascendency  in  national  affairs 


126   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

and  the  most  extraordinary  legislation  which  charac- 
terized it.  As  has  been  shown  in  preceding  pages, 
the  tariff  history  of  this  country  from  1816  down  to 
1861  is  but  a  chronicle  of  successive  changes  of  pol- 
icy, many  of  them  radical  and  not  a  few  most  spor- 
adic, varying  with  the  party  in  power.  In  all  the 
earlier  years  our  tariff  legislation  was  influenced  very 
largely  by  the  attitude  of  European  nations.  Eng- 
land, especially,  having  good  cause  to  check  the 
prosperity  of  alien  nations,  which  might  prove  dan- 
gerous rivals  in  the  markets  of  the  world,  lost  no  op- 
portunity to  thwart,  if  possible,  every  effort  made 
toward  the  successful  establishment  of  manufacturing 
industries  here,  and  either  to  cripple  our  agriculture 
or  lay  it  under  contribution  to  herself.  Other  na- 
tions, too,  were  for  a  time,  but  little  more  liberal  in 
their  treatment. 

But  in  spite  of  every  hindrance  and  discourage- 
ment, manufacturing  gained  a  secure  foothold,  and 
agriculture  survived  and  eventually  thrived.  In  those 
years,  however,  when  the  country  was  sparsely  set- 
tled, the  few  interests  of  much  importance  were  so 
exclusively  confined  to  certain  localities,  that  tariff 
legislation  was  distinctively  sectional  in  its  aim  and 
effect.  Parties  oftentimes  held  their  control  by  such 
narrow  majorities  that,  in  order  to  hold  the  votes  of 
important  States,  their  interests  would  be  highly 
"  protected; "  such  a  policy  resulting  in  the  imposi- 
tion of  a  heavy  tax  upon  less  favored  localities. 
Then  the  ever-recurring  changes  with  the  next  move 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  127 

frequently  robbed  the  "  protected"  States  of  the  bene- 
fits previously  conferred,  and  other  interests  and 
other  localities  received  consideration. 

It  is  little  wonder,  in  view  of  the  vascillation  and 
discrimination  which  prevailed  for  so  many  years, 
that  our  country  made  but  comparatively  slow  pro- 
gress in  the  commercial  world  for  a  considerable 
time.  Not  till  after  the  late  civil  war  was  the  nation 
committed  to  a  policy  which  bid  fair  to  be  perma- 
nent, a  policy  that,  instead  of  being  sectional,  was 
national  in  its  scope,  recognizing  the  community  of 
interest  of  the  entire  United  Statesr  For  thirty 
years  that  policy  dominated  all  our  tariff  legislation, 
and  no  one  can  deny  that  its  operation  marked  an  era 
of  prosperity  never  equaled  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

The  Democratic  party,  in  its  platform  adopted  by 
its  National  Convention  at  Chicago  in  1892,  declared 
most  emphatically  and  explicitly  that  the  govern- 
ment u  has  no  right  to  impose  and  collect  customs 
duties  except  for  the  purposes  of  revenue  only." 

When  Congress  assembled  in  regular  session  in 
December,  as  had  been  anticipated,  the  South  was 
in  almost  complete  control.  In  the  House,  the  Hon. 
Charles  F.  Crisp  of  Georgia  was  the  Speaker,  and 
in  the  make-up  of  committees,  the  chairmanship  of 
nearly  every  important  one  was  conferred  upon  a 
southern  member.  The  Hon.  William  L.  Wilson  of 
West  Virginia  was  made  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  ways  and  means,  upon  which  devolved  the  duty 
of  framing  a  Democratic  tariff  measure. 


128   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Mr.  Wilson  and  his  confreres  began  their  labor, 
and  after  the  lapse  of  about  two  months,  presented  a 
bill  which'  largely  reduced  the  average  duties  imposed 
by  the  McKinley  law,  increased  a  few,  and  materially 
enlarged  the  "  free  list."  This  bill,  after  a  brief  de- 
bate, was  passed  by  the  House  on  February  i,  1894. 

The  bill  went  to  the  Senate  for  concurrence,  and 
here  it  was  destined  to  hang  for  several  weary 
months,  while  the  people  awaited  the  outcome  with 
the  utmost  anxiety. 

The  Senate  passed  its  amended  bill  July '3,  provid- 
ing for  a  material  increase  in  some  of  the  rates  pro- 
posed in  the  original  bill.  Then  began  a  struggle, 
the  like  of  which  had  not  been  witnessed  before  in 
many  years,  if  ever.  The  House  was  indisposed  to 
accept  the  amendments  adopted  by  the  Senate  and 
the  latter  body  was  firm  in  its  determination  not  to 
yield.  A  conference  committee  was  finally  appointed 
by  both  houses,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  if  there 
was  any  possibility  of  a  compromise.  After  holding 
several  sessions  and  indulging  in  extended  discus- 
sions, the  committee  was  obliged  to  report  its 
inability  to  agree,  the  Senate  members  having  refused 
to  recede  from  the  position  taken  by  their  house. 

The  House,  however,  continued  its  deliberations, 
hoping  that  the  Senate  might  be  induced  to  modify 
in  some  degree  its  most  extraordinary  demands. 
Eut  all  to  no  purpose.  Senator  Arthur  P.  Gorman 
of  Maryland  was  at  the  helm,  and  held  his  party 
associates  with  a  firm  hand.  He  finally  notified  the 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  1 2Q 

House  that  it  was  "'the  Senate  bill  or  nothing,"  and 
at  last  the  House,  seeing  that  further  contention 
would  be  useless,  surrendered,  and  on  August  I3th, 
concurred  in  the  Senate  amendments.  From  his 
known  hostility  to  the  measure  as  passed,  it  was 
believed  by  many  that  President  Cleveland  would 
exercise  his  prerogative  and  veto  it,  but  ten  days 
elapsed  and  no  message  came,  so  by  constitutional 
limitation  the  bill  became  a  law,  the  President  not 
having  signed  it. 

What  were  the  important  features  of  this  new 
law  ?  What  were  the  changes  which  the  people  had 
to  face  ? 

In  the  first  place  it  put  on  the  free  list  articles 
which  paid  a  duty  under  the  McKinley  law,  and 
which  were  imported  in  1893  to  the  value  of  $41,- 
398,000.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  agriculture  was 
made  to  bear  the  burden  of  the  greater  part  of  this 
loss  of  revenue.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  free  list,  or 
to  be  exact,  $18,496,553.92  was  taken  from  wool,  the 
growing  of  which  had  become,  under  reasonable  pro- 
tection, one  of  the  most  important  agricultural  indus- 
tries. Lumber  figures  a  loss  of  $10,198,391,  and 
other  articles  bring  the  reductions  on  products  of 
the  farm  and  forest  up  to  $31,937,750.  The  balance 
of  the  free  list,  $9,460,249,  consisted  principally  of 
manufactured  articles,  though  painting,  statuary  and 
other  works  of  art  figured  at  $2,261,766. 

The    reduction    of   the    duties    on    woolen   goods, 
based  on  the  importation  of  1893,  was  in  round  num- 
9 


I3O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

bers,  $19,000,000.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  this  amount, 
or  over  $  1 2,000,000,  came  from  duties  on  wool 
plushes,  embroideries,  Axminster  carpets,  fine  cloths 
and  dress  goods  of  the  finer  grades.  Some  of  the 
other  reductions  were  :  On  silk  dress  goods,  plushes, 
velvets,  etc.,  $2,720,605  ;  on  laces  and  embroideries, 
$1,537,890;  on  china  ware,  $2,233,987  ;  on  paintings 
and  statuary,  $432,  657;  on  ostrich  feathers  and  flow- 
ers, $265,330;  on  kid  gloves,  $875,000;  on  pearl 
buttons,  $224,600;  opium  for  smoking,  $400,073  ;  on 
liquors,  $1,232,950;  on  leaf  tobacco  and  Havana 
cigars,  $1,432,902,  as  based  on  the  importations  of 
1893. 

While  the  tariff  bill  of  1894  was  under  discussion 
in  Congress  for  the  greater  part  of  six  long  months, 
"  the  Sugar  Schedule  "  absorbed  more  attention  than 
any  other  feature ;  in  fact,  nearly  as  much  as  all  the 
remainder  of  the  bill,  notwithstanding  that  "  free  raw 
materials "  had  been  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  all 
tariff  reformers  since  the  election  of  1892. 

The  first  provision  of  the  sugar  schedule  of  the 
"Wilson  bill"  which  passed  the  House  in  1894,  was 
a  repeal  of  the  bounty  provision,  and  in  order  that  the 
sugar  producers  should  be  promptly  cut  off  from  any 
benefit  they  might  derive  under  the  old  tax,  during 
the  current  year,  the  House  took  care  to  specify  that 
the  repeal  was  "to  take  effect  July  i,  1894,  and  there- 
after it  shall  be  unlawful  to  issue  any  license  to  pro- 
duce sugar  or  to  pay  any  bounty  for  the  production  of 
sugar  of  any  kind  under  said  act" 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION. 

The  Wilson  bill  also  placed  all  sugars  and  molasses 
on  the  free  list,  but  placed  a  duty  of  30  per  cent 
ad  valorem  on  confectionery,  and  15  per  cent  on 
glucose. 

The  Senate  readily  agreed  to  the  repeal  of  the 
bounty  provision,  but  refused  to  let  in  sugar  free, 
and  passed  an  amendment  imposing  a  duty  of  40  per 
cent  ad  valorem  on  raw  sugars,  which  it  was  consid- 
ered would  furnish  abundant  "  protection  "  to  Ameri- 
can sugar  producers.  But,  in  addition  to  this,  the 
"  sugar  senators  "  succeeded  in  securing  a  practical 
bounty  to  the  Sugar  Trust  in  the  shape  of  an  extra 
duty  of  one-eighth  of  a  cent  a  pound  on  all  sugars 
above  No.  16  Dutch  standard  and  all  discolored  sugars, 
and  an  additional  one-tenth  of  a  cent  on  imports  from 
bounty-paying  countries.  The  Senate  amendment 
further  stipulated  than  the  treaty  made  with  Hawaii 
in  1875  was  not  to  be  abrogated  or  in  anywise  im- 
paired. 

On  molasses,  testing  above  forty  degrees  and  not 
above  fifty-six  degrees,  the  duty  was  placed  at  two 
cents  per  gallon,  and,  if  testing  above  fifty-six  de- 
grees, four  cents.  Confectionery  of  all  kinds  was 
put  at  35  per  cent  ad  valorem,  and  saccharine  25  per 
cent. 

It  was  the  above  provisions  which  the  House  at 
first  refused  to  agree  to,  but  which,  after  the  pro- 
longed struggle  in  July  and  August,  1894,  it  was  fin- 
ally compelled  to  acquiesce  in,  and  which  then 
became  a  part  of  the  bill,  as  passed. 


132  A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

FREE  WOOL. 

No  provisions  of  our  tariff  laws  in  recent  years 
have  been  of  more  vital  interest  to  farmers  generally 
than  those  which  affected  wool,  the  production  of 
which  had  become  one  of  our  greatest  industries. 
Under  the  protection  afforded  by  the  law  of  1890, 
and  previous  tariffs  for  some  years,  the  number  of 
sheep  and  the  wool  production  had  been  steadily 
increasing.  In  1892  there  were  nearly  47,000,000 
sheep  in  the  country,  and  the  total  wool  clip  amounted 
to  364,000,000  pounds,  an  increase  of  92,792,000 
pounds  over  the  production  of  1891. 

By  the  law  of  1890  "wools  of  the  merino  blood, 
immediate  or  remote,  down-clothing  wools  and  wools 
of  like  character  with  the  foregoing,  including  those 
usually  imported  from  Buenos  Ayres,  New  Zealand, 
Australia,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Russia,  Great  Bri- 
tain, Canada  and  elsewhere,"  paid  a  duty  of  eleven 
cents  per  pound. 

Upon  "combing  wools,  Canada  long  wools,  and 
hair  of  the  camel,  goat,  alpaca,  and  other  like  ani- 
mals," the  duty  was  twelve  cents  per  pound,  while 
"  Donskoi,  native  South  American,  Cordova,  Valpa- 
raiso, native  Smyrna,  Russian  camel's  hair,  and  wools 
usually  imported  from  Turkey,  Greece,  Egypt  and 
Syria,  valued  at  thirteen  cents  or  less  per  pound,'* 
were  made  dutiable  at  thirty-two  cents  per  pound. 

The  law  of  1894  placed  all  wools,  etc.,  as  specified 
in  the  above  classes,  on  the  free  list.  The  anticipa- 
tion of  this  act  had  begun  to  have  a  marked  effect 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  133 

some  time  before  the  measure  was  passed.  On  the 
first  of  January,  1893,  the  value  of  the  sheep  in  the 
United  States  was  estimated  at  $125,909,264.  On 
January  i,  1894,  the  total  value  had  fallen  to  $89,- 
186,110,  a  decrease  of  over  $36,000,000.  The  num- 
ber of  sheep  in  the  country  fell  off  during  the  year 
preceding  the  passage  of  the  bill  from  47,000,000  to 
45,000,000.  What  was  the  cause  of  this  ?  There 
had  been  at  that  time  no  change  in  the  tariff.  The 
farmers  knew,  however,  that  soon  there  was  to  be  an 
end  to  protection.  The  tariff  reformers  had  prom- 
ised free  raw  materials,  and  the  prospect  of  an  enor- 
mous influx  of  foreign  wool  materially  reduced  the 
price  in  the  home  market,  and  naturally  the  value  of 
the  wool  bearing  animal  was  correspondingly  depre- 
ciated. 

The  object  of  placing  wool  upon  the  free  list  was, 
of  course,  to  enable  American  manufacturers  to 
compete  with  foreign  manufacturers  to  better  advan- 
tage. But  on  nearly  every  article  made  wholly  or  in 
part  of  wool,  the  duty  was  also  reduced,  amounting 
in  the  aggregate  to  about  $19,000,000,  which  was  to 
the  benefit  of  the  foreign  manufacturer  ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, woolen  and  worsted  cloths,  etc.,  valued  at  not 
more  than  30  cents  per  pound,  paid,  under  the  law 
of  1890,  33  cents  per  pound,  and  40  per  cent  ad  val- 
orum;  the  new  law  made  it  40  per  cent  only.  On 
ready  made  clothing,  etc.,  taxed  by  McKinley  at  49^ 
cents  per  pound,  and  60  per  cent  ad  valorem,  the 
duty  was  put  down  to  50  per  cent.  Knit  fabrics  (not 


134   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

including  wearing  apparel),  shawls  made  wholly  or  in 
parts  of  wool,  etc.,  not  exceeding  30  cents  per  pound 
in  value,  paid  35  per  cent  under  the  new  law,  while 
33  cents  per  pound  and  40  per  cent  was  charged 
under  the  old  law.  Blankets,  wool  hats  and  flannels, 
for  underwear,  valued  at  30  cents  a  pound,  or  less, 
which  previously  paid  16^  cents,  and  30  per  cent, 
were  reduced  to  25  per  cent.  Ladies'  cloaks,  dol- 
mans, jackets,  etc.,  paid  50  per  cent  ad  valorem,  as 
against  49^  cents  a  pound,  and  60  per  cent  under  the 
McKinley  law.  A  still  greater  reduction  was  made 
on  webbings,  bindings,  suspenders,  dress  trimmings, 
laces,  embroideries,  buttons,  nettings  and  various 
other  articles  made  wholly  or  in  part  of  wool. 

Upon  imported  carpets  of  all  kinds  there  was  a 
reduction  averaging  from  25  to  35  per  cent,  and  on 
some  much  more. 

In  fact,  under  the  new  law  practically  the  whole 
woolen  schedule  was  revolutionized,  and  this  was 
little  more  than  what  was  to  be  expected  in  view  of 
the  provision  for  free  wool.  In  the  entire  list  of 
articles  which  have  been  the  subject  of  consideration 
by  our  tariff  makers  none  shows  so  marked  a  depart- 
ure from  the  policy  which  had  been  pursued  for  many 
years  as  wool.  Not  only  has  it  been  "  protected  "  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent  ever  since  the  Rebellion,  but 
even  under  the  Democratic  tariff  of  1846  a  tonsid- 
erable  duty  was  placed  upon  it. 

At  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  Law  of  1894, 
there  were  in  New  York  city  alone  about  125  bonded 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  135 

warehouses,  estimated  to  contain  1,500,000  packages 
of  goods,  valued  at  $40,000,000,  upon  which  duties 
amounting  to  $30,000,000  remained  unpaid.  In- 
cluded in  this  was  13,180,808  yards  of  wool  dress 
goods  of  the  import  value  of  $2,434,364.  In  addition 
to  this  it  was  reported  that  there  were  several  ships 
laden  with  foreign  wool  lying  at  the  doors  of  our 
ports  of  entry,  patiently  awaiting  the  day  when  they 
could  enter  their  cargoes  duty  free. 

OTHER  TEXTILES. 

The  reductions  on  other  textile  materials  and 
manufactures  thereof  were  not  generally  so  radical 
as  on  woolens,  but  still  show  a  marked  decrease  from 
those  prevailing  under  the  McKinley  law.  Take 
cottons,  for  instance.  On  unbleached  cotton  cloth, 
not  exceeding  fifty  threads  to  the  square  inch,  the 
rate  was  made  i  cent  per  yard  where  it  had  been  2 
cents  ;  bleached  cloth  of  the  same  texture  was  reduced 
from  2\  cents  to  \\.  On  similar  goods  of  a  finer 
texture  and  heavier  weight  the  reduction  was  some- 
what less.  Articles  of  wearing  apparel,  handker- 
chiefs, etc.,  of  cotton,  which  had  paid  50  per  cent, 
were  placed  at  40  per  cent.  Cotton  thread,  on  which 
the  old  duty  had  been  7  cents  per  dozen  spools,  was 
reduced  to  5^  cents,  and  upon  cotton  yarn  of  various 
textures  the  changes  were  about  the  same. 

In  the  line  of  flax,  hemp,  jute  and  manufactures 
of  the  same,  ad  valorem  duties  were  substituted 
largely  for  specific,  but  a  reduction  was  effected  just 


136   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FO-R  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  same  on  most  articles.  Hemp  and  jute  carpet- 
ings  were  changed  from  6  cents  per  square  yard  to  20 
per  cent.  Oil  cloths  were  cut  down  from  40  per 
cent  to  25  ;  cables,  cordage,  etc.,  changed  from  i^- 
cents  per  pound  to  10  per  cent ;  tapes  reduced  from 
50  per  cent  to  25  ;  laces,  edgings,  etc.,  made  of  jute, 
flax  or  cotton,  from  60  per  cent  to  50.  On  all  manu- 
factures of  flax,  hemp  and  jute,  valued  at  5  cents  per 
pound  or  less,  the  McKinley  duty  was  2  cents  per 
pound.  This  was  changed  to  35  per  cent. 

Silks  and  silk  goods  suffered  much  less  than  other 
goods  of  greater  demand  among  people  of  moderate 
means.  Silk  clothing,  knit  goods,  handkerchiefs, 
laces,  etc.,  were  cut  from  60  per  cent  to  50.  Silk 
velvets  had  paid  $1.50  per  pound  and  15  per  cent; 
only  the  latter  was  taken  off.  Braids,  binding,  fringes, 
suspenders  and  beltings  were  only  dropped  from  50 
per  cent  to  45,  and  other  manufactures  of  silk  the 
same. 

FARM  PRODUCTS. 

Aside  from  wool,  the  so-called  agricultural  schedule 
will  have  a  greater  interest  for  our  farming  popula- 
tion than  any  other  portion  of  the  law.  Before  Con- 
gress met  in  December,  1893,  it  was  a  foregone  con- 
clusion that  wool  was  bound  to  go  on  the  "  free  list," 
and  that  other  "  raw  materials"  were  also  to  assist  in 
"  removing  the  obstacles  to  cheaper  home  produc- 
tion," but  the  farmers  were  hardly  prepared  to  be- 
lieve that  even  a  "tariff  reform  Congress  would  re- 
move nearly  every  vestige  of  protection  from  all  the 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  137 

farm  produced."  Conceding  some  justification  for 
"free  wool,"  on  the  ground  of  "greater  benefits  to 
the  greater  number,"  even  though  they  anticipated 
ruin  for  the  native  wool  grower,  they  could  not  see 
the  necessity  of  such  a  radical  reduction  in  duties 
shown  in  the  agricultural  schedule. 

Prices  of  all  farm  products  had  been  compara- 
tively low,  some,  in  fact,  so  low  as  to  warrant  the 
abandonment  of  the  crop.  Cereals  and  certain  other 
crops  were  raised  in  such  abundance  as  to  admit  of 
a  considerable  export.  In  spite  of  this,  foreign 
countries  have  competed,  to  some  extent,  with  our 
farmers  on  their  own  ground,  and  under  a  reduced 
tariff,  a  greater  competition  was  to  be  anticipated.  , 

Corn,  oats  and  buckwheat,  each  of  which  paid  15 
cents  per  bushel  under  the  law  of  1890,  rye,  which 
paid  10  cents,  and  wheat,  which  paid  25  cents,  were 
all  put  at  20  per  cent  ad  valorem  in  the  law  of  1894. 
Barley,  previously  dutied  at  30  cents  per  bushel,  was 
placed  at  30  per  cent. 

Potatoes  suffered  a  cut  from  25  cents  a  bushel  to 
15  cents ;  beans  and  onions  both  from  40  cents  to  20. 
The  duty  on  butter  and  cheese  was  dropped  from  6 
cents  per  pound  to  4,  and  on  eggs  from  5  cents  a 
dozen  to  3.  Cabbages,  which  had  paid  3  cents  each, 
were  put  on  the  free  list.  Honey  was  reduced  from 
20  cents  a  gallon  to  10,  and  hops  from  15  cents  per 
pound  to  8.  There  was  also  a  50  per  cent  reduction 
on  hay  and  straw,  the  former  going  from  $4  per  ton 
to  $2  and  the  latter  from  30  per  cent  ad  valorem  to 


138   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

15.  For  several  of  these  articles  Canadian  farmers 
had  succeeded,  even  under  the  old  tariff,  in  securing 
quite  a  market,  and  some,  notably  potatoes  and 
onions,  were  imported  in  some  quantities  from  other 
foreign  countries. 

In  the  line  of  meat  products,  the  variation  was  per- 
haps less  marked,  and  of  less  importance,  as  the  im- 
portation cuts  no  material  figure. 

FREE  LUMBER. 

One  of  the  significant  changes  of  the  law  of  1894, 
and  one  affecting  a  great  national  interest  was  the 
placing  of  the  entire  lumber  schedule  upon  the  free 
list.  Lumbering,  while  carried  on  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent in  many  States,  became  an  industry  of  enormous 
proportions  in  the  northwestern  States  bordering  on 
the  great  lakes.  In  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Min- 
nesota it  involved  the  investment  of  many  millions 
of  dollars  and  furnished  employment  to  nearly  the 
entire  population  of  vast  sections  of  territory.  In 
Maine,  also,  there  has  been  a  large  output  of  lumber 
for  many  years.  But  Canada,  with  its  immense- tim- 
ber tracts  and  facilities  for  cheap  lumbering,  had 
maintained  a  sharp  competition  with  the  lumber  in- 
terests along  much  of  our  northern  border.  Natur- 
ally, then,  our  lumbermen  looked  upon  the  entire 
removal  of  duties  as  an  invitation  to  such  greater 
inroads  upon  their  market  as  would  imperil,  if  not 
destroy,  the  industry  in  some  localities  at  least. 
Lumber,  however,  had  been  subjected  to  only  a 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  139 

moderate  duty,  which  could  hardly  be  considered  as 
effective  protection  under  previous  tariffs.  Even  the 
McKinley  law  only  retained  existing  duties,  and  on 
certain  kinds  of  lumber  lowered  them. 

It  had  been  evident  for  some  time  that  lumber 
must,  in  the  near  future,  come  in  free,  for  reasons 
which  could  not  be  ignored.  It  was  also  plain  that 
importations  of  lumber  must  necessarily  largely  in- 
crease within  a  very  few  years.  Few  people,  com- 
paratively, realize  how  rapidly  our  forests  are  being 
denuded,  and  how  closely  we  are  approaching  a  time 
when  we  must  depend  to  a  great  extent  upon  the 
outside  world  for  our  building  supplies,  unless  lum- 
bering operations  are  largely  curtailed  for  a  time  at 
home. 

The  woodman's  ax  and  the  saw-mill  were  aided  in 
their  work  of  forest  consumption,  in  1894,  by  one  of 
the  most  direful  calamities  ithat  ever  visited  the 
Northwest.  Forest  fires  raged  over  and  devastated 
vast  tracts  of  land  in  northern  Michigan  and  Wiscon- 
sin, in  the  late  summer,  destroying  hundreds  of  mil- 
lions of  feet  of  standing  and  cut  timber,  laying  several 
villages  in  ashes,  resulting  in  a  money  loss  of  several 
million  dollars,  besides  causing  the  loss  of  a  large 
number  of  lives. 

COAL  AND  IRON. 

Aside  from  the  memorable  struggle  over  "  the 
sugar  schedule,"  no  feature  of  the  prolonged  and 
acrimonious  discussion  of  the  tariff  bill  of  1894 


I4O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

caused  greater  friction  in  debate  than  the  considera- 
tion of  coal  and  iron,  which  form  the  basis  of  the 
greatest  American  industries.  When  the  bill  was 
first  formulated  in  committee  it  was  a  foregone  con- 
clusion that  there  would  be  practical  unanimity  on 
the  Democratic  side  in  regard  to  placing  wool  on  the 
free  list.  The  so-called  "  Wilson  bill,"  as  presented 
in  the  House  and  passed  by  that  body,  also  made  coal 
and  iron  ore  free.  The  Senate,  however,  refused  to 
accept  the  conditions,  and  would  only  agree  to  a 
moderation  of  the  then  existing  duties  on  those  two 
great  "  raw  materials,"  and  so,  in  the  bill  as  finally 
passed,  coal  and  iron  ore,  instead  of  being  free,  were 
left  dutiable  at  forty  cents  per  ton.  Both  had  paid 
seventy-five  cents  under  the  McKinley  law.  This 
reduction  was  not  satisfactory  to  either  side.  The 
great  coal  and  iron  interests  of  Pennsylvania  had 
uttered  their  emphatic  protests,  before  the  bill  had 
been  submitted  to  Congress,  against  any  material 
reduction  of  existing  duties,  to  say  nothing  of  their 
entire  removal.  And  now,  although  coal  and  iron 
ore  were  not  left  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  foreign 
competition,  there  was  little  protection  left  in  a  duty 
which  had  been  cut  nearly  one-half.  The  followers 
of  the  President,  on  the  other  hand,  while  deploring 
the  perversity  of  the  Senate  in  checking  "tariff  re- 
form/'consoled  themselves  with  the  fact  that,  at  least, 
*'  a  great  step  forward  "  had  been  taken. 

Following  the  reductions  on  coal  and  iron  ore  the 
duties  on  the  entire  metal  schedule  were  subjected 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  14! 

to  a  liberal  scaling  down.  Pig  iron,  which  under  the 
law  of  1890  paid  $6  per  ton,  was  reduced  to  $4. 
This,  however,  would  hardly  result  in  any  material 
increase  in  importations,  and  the  great  bulk  of  the 
pig  iron  used  in  this  country  will  probably  always  be 
produced  here.  The  duty  on  bar  iron  was  reduced 
from  $22  to  $12  per  ton.  On  most  of  the  varieties 
of  manufactured  iron  and  steel  the  duties  were 
changed  from  specific  to  ad  valorem  or  the  reverse, 
but  in  nearly  all  cases  amounting  to  a  reduction  of 
from  one-fourth  to  one-half.  Axles  were  dropped 
from  2  cents  a  pound  to  i£;  anvils  from  2^  to  if; 
blacksmiths'  hammers,  crowbars,  etc,  from  2\  to  i^; 
hinges  and  bolts  the  same.  The  rate  on  tin  and 
terne  plates  was  reduced  from  2-5-  cents  to  i£  per 
pound.  The  advocates  of  tariff  reform  had  for  many 
years  ridiculed  the  claim  that  protection  was  neces- 
sary for  our  "  infant  industries,"  saying  that  most  of 
them  had  long  since  outgrown  their  infancy,  but 
still  clamored  for  protection  as  loudly  as  ever. 
Without  commenting  upon  the  merits  of  this  charge 
in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  manufacture  of 
tin  plates  was  in  every  sense  an  "  infant  industry  " 
in  this  country  as  late  as  1890,  for  it  was  not  until  the 
passage  of  the  McKinley  law  that  any  great  effort 
had  been  made  to  establish  it  here.  Under  the 
stimulus  and  encouragement  afforded  by  that  law, 
several  extensive  plants  were  started  in  Pennsylvania 
and  elsewhere,  and  the  production  of  tin  plates  was 
began  on  a  considerable  scale.  The  early  outputs  were 


142   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

much  inferior  to  the  imported  plates,  but  later  efforts 
showed  so  much  improvement  that  complete  success 
seemed  certain  and  there  was  every  reason  to  believe 
that,  if  adequate  protection  was  continued,  Ameri- 
can tin  plate  industry  would,  in  a  few  years,  afford 
employment  for  many  thousands  of  hands.  Under 
a  reduced  duty  the  fate  of  the  industry  cannot  at 
once  be  determined. 

The  manufacture  of  cutlery,  an  industry  which, 
under  the  influence  of  previous  tariffs,  had  acquired 
considerable  proportions,  was  materially  affected  by 
the  modifications  of  the  law  of  1894.  On  pocket 
cutlery,  valued  at  not  more  than  $i  per  dozen,  the 
McKinley  lawplaced  a  duty  of  50  cents  per  dozen,  and, 
50  per  cent  ad  valorem.  The  new  law  took  just  half 
of  this  off.  On  similar  goods,  valued  at  more  than 
$3  per  dozen,  the  rate  was  made  50  per  cent  ad  va- 
lorem against  the  same  rate  with  an  addition  of  $2 
per  dozen  under  the  previous  law.  The  reductions 
on  table  cutlery,  razors,  etc.,  were  not  quite  so  large 
on  the  average.  Fire-arms,  saws,  nails,  etc.,  were 
made  to  pay  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  less  under 
the  law  of  1894,  than  before.  Clocks  were  cut  from 
45  per  cent  to  25,  while  watches  were  left  at  the  same 
rate  as  had  been  levied  previously. 

MISCELLANEOUS  CHANGES. 

In  the  line  of  tobacco,  the  only  marked  change 
was  on  wrapper  tobacco,  the  duty  on  which  was  low- 
ered from  $2  to  $1.50  per  pound.  The  rates  on 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  143 

cigars,  cigarettes,  snuff  and  manufactured  tobacco, 
were  practically  unaltered.  No  change  was  made 
on  champagne  and  other  wines,  but  the  duty  on 
brandy  and  other  distilled  spirits  was  placed  at  $1.80 
per  gallon,  as  against  $2.50  under  the  previous  law. 

While  in  nearly  all  schedules  where  any  change  at 
all  was  made,  it  was  in  the  direction  of  lower  duties, 
there  were  a  few  instances  where  even  the  existing 
rates  were  increased.  On  matches  the  rate  was  just 
doubled,  and  the  rate  on  unset  precious  stones  was 
raised  from  10  per  cent  to  25. 

Boots,  shoes  and  leather  show  no  very  material 
alterations.  Furs  were  left  alone,  but  hats  were  cut 
from  55  per  cent  to  40,  and  feathers  from  50  to  35, 
while  the  rate  on  palm  leaf  fans  was  increased  from 
30  per  cent  to  40.  On  gloves  of  all  kinds  the  duties 
were  changed  from  ad  valorem  to  specific,  probably 
resulting  in  a  slight  reduction. 

Among  the  general  provisions  of  the  law  of  1894, 
those  providing  for  free  materials  for  ships  for  for- 
eign trade,  prohibiting  the  importation  of  impure 
literature  and  infected  animals,  imposing  a  discrimi- 
nating duty  of  ten  per  cent  in  cases  where  no  treaty 
exists,  providing  for  free  importation  of  machinery  for 
repair,  also  for  drawbacks  on  exports,  etc.,  were  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  in  the  McKinley  law.  A  new 
provision,  and  one  which  was  universally  commended, 
was  to  the  effect  that  "  All goods,  wares,  articles  and 
merchandise  manufactured  wholly  or  in  part  in  any 
foreign  country  by  convict  labor  shall  not  be  entitled  to 


144    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

entry  at  any  of  the  ports  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
importation  thereof  is  strictly  prohibited" 

In  past  years  several  of  the  States  had  derived  a 
considerable  revenue  from  leasing  the  labor  of  their 
convicts,  and  the  product  of  such  labor  was  often 
sent  into  the  market  in  competition  with  similar 
goods  made  by  free  labor.  Reform  legislation  in 
many  States  has  put  an  end  to  such  unfair  competi- 
tion at  home,  and  it  was  but  an  act  of  justice  to  the 
American  workman  for  the  general  government  to 
take  measures  to  protect  him  fron  similar  dangers 
abroad. 

INTERNAL    REVENUE. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  framers  of  the  tariff  law 
of  1894,  anticipating  at  least  a  temporary  reduction 
in  the  receipts  from  customs  duties  when  the  lower 
rates  came  into  effect,  determined  that  a  liberal  por- 
tion of  the  possible  deficiency  should  be  made  up  by 
increased  internal  revenue  collections.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  revenue  derived  from  internal  taxes 
is,  of  course,  borne  by  spirits,  so  when  the  tax 
thereon  was  raised  from  90  cents  to  $1.10  per 
gallon,  an  extra  $15,000,000  was  counted  on  from 
this  source.  But  the  immediate  effect  of  the  law  gave 
little  promise  that  this  would  be  realized  for  the  first 
year.  It  so  happened  that  a  corporation  whose  legal 
title  was  The  Distilling  and  Cattle  Feeding  Com- 
pany, but  which  was  popularly  known  as  "  The  Whis- 
key Trust,"  having  its  headquarters  at  Peoria,  111., 
operated  most  of  the  large  distilleries  in  the  country 


OUR    TARIFF    AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  145 

and  therefore  controlled  the  great  bulk  of  whiskey 
produced.  Before  the  passage  of  the  new  law  there 
was  stored  in  bonded  warehouses  throughout  the 
country  many  millions  of  gallons  of  whiskey  and 
other  spirits,  upon  which  the  tax  remained  unpaid. 
In  anticipation  of  the  increased  rate  the  officers  of 
the  ''trust"  scoured  the  financial  centers  and,  utiliz- 
ing every  available  resource  at  their  command, 
raised  enormous  sums  of  money,  with  which  they 
began  withdrawing  whiskey  from  bond,  paying  the 
tax  at  the  old  rate  of  90  cents  a  gallon.  Rarely  if 
ever  has  there  been  such  a  rush  of  business  at  reve- 
nue collectors'  offices  as  prevailed  for  a  few  days  at 
this  time.  The  receipts  reached  almost  unprece- 
dented figures.  In  two  months  they  amounted  in 
the  aggregate  to  $51,924,878,  as  against  $25,092,304 
for  the  corresponding  period  of  1893.  Of  this  vast 
sum  no  less  than  $39,705,000  came  from  spirits,  and 
$36,693,000  from  whiskey  alone.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  consumption  of  whiskey  in  the  United  States 
is  58,000,000  gallons  annually.  The  figures  show 
that  in  the  brief  space  of  two  months  or  less  nearly 
if  not  quite  40,000,000  gallons,  or  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  a  year's  supply  had  been  taken  out  of  bond, 
and  little  if  any  had  paid  the  increased  tax.  After 
this  extraordinary  rush  of  business  the  revenue  soon 
dropped  to  a  point  below  the  average  monthly  figure, 
the  first  month  after  the  new  law  went  into  effect 
being  $18,000,000  less  than  those  of  the  month  pre- 
ceding. 

10 


146   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

After  calculating  the  increased  receipts  to  be  ex- 
pected from  spirits,  the  framers  of  the  law  of  1894 
looked  about  for  something  else  from  which  a  few 
more  millions  might  be  squeezed  to  help  out  the 
revenue.  They  finally  decided  that  playing  cards 
could  very  properly  be  made  to  yield  tribute,  and  so 
a  section  imposing  a  tax  of  two  cents  on  each  pack 
made  and  sold  in  the  United  States  appeared  as  a 
new  feature  in  the  law.  It  was  estimated  that  about 
$3,000,000  would  be  derived  from  this  source. 

INCOME  TAX. 

When  it  became  known  that  it  was  proposed  to 
incorporate  an  income  tax  provision  in  the  bill  pro- 
tests poured  in  from  various  parts  of  the  country  and 
Congressmen,  notably  certain  ones  from  Eastern 
States,  were  earnestly  besought  by  their  constituents 
to  leave  no  stone  unturned  to  defeat  such  a  measure, 
which  it  was  declared  would  be  un-Democratic,  un- 
American  and  a  piece  of  discrimination  of  the  most 
unwarranted  and  outrageous  kind. 

The  radical  tariff  reformers,  in  defense  of  their 
scheme,  contended  that  the  income  tax  was  only 
designed  as  a  temporary  measure.  It  was  finally  de- 
cided that  the  desired  adjustment  of  means  to 
ends  would  probably  be  accomplished  within  five 
years  ;  and  so,  when  the  new  tariff  bill  went  through, 
there  was  a  section  which  provided  that :  "  From 
rmd  after  January  i,  1895,  and  until  January  i, 
1900,  there  shall  be  assessed,  levied,  collected  and 


OUR    TARIFF    AND.  TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  147 

paid  annually  upon  the  gains,  profits  and  income  re- 
ceived in  the  preceding  calendar  year  by  every  citi- 
zen of  the  United  States,  whether  residing  at  home 
or  abroad,  and  every  person  residing  therein,  whether 
such  gains,  profits  or  income  be  derived  from  any 
kind  of  property,  rents,  interests,  dividends  or  sala- 
ries, or  from  any  profession,  trade,  employment  or 
vocation  carried  on  in  the  United  States  or  elsewhere, 
or  from  any  other  source  whatever,  a  tax  on  the 
amount  so  derived  over  and  above  $4,000,  and  a  like 
tax  shall  be  levied,  collected  and  paid  annually  upon 
the  gains,  profits  and  income  from  all  property  owned, 
and  of  every  business,  trade  or  profession  carried  on 
in  the  United  States  by  persons  residing  without  the 
United  States.  *  *  *  *." 

A  further  section  imposed  a  tax  of  two  percent  on 
the  net  income  of  all  companies  and  corporations 
doing  business  for  profits,  and  in  order  that  nobody 
capable  of  earning  or  making  over  $4,000  a  year 
should  escape  the  clutches  of  the  tax  gatherer,  it  was 
ordered  that,  in  case  any  person  or  corporation  re- 
fused or  neglected  to  render  a  return  as  required,  or 
made  a  false  list,  the  revenue  collector  should  make 
up  a  list  of  the  delinquent's  income  from  such  infor- 
mation as  could  be  obtained,  and  then  100  per  cent 
should  be  added  to  the  tax  assessed  ! 

RECIPROCITY  ABANDONED. 

Another  feature  ot  the  new  law  which  met  with 
considerable  criticism  was  a  clause  abrogating  the 


148   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

reciprocal  agreements  which  President  Harrison, 
under  the  authority  of  the  law  of  1890,  had  entered 
into  with  several  countries  with  a  view  to  promoting 
trade  with  the  United  States  and  securing  an  en- 
larged market  for  many  of  our  manufactured  pro- 
ducts. 

From  the  showings  made  up  to  the  time  of  the 
passage  of  the  law  of  1894,  it  was  evidently  consid- 
ered that  reciprocity  had  been  only  a  partial  success, 
and  by  their  action  the  Democrats  in  Congress  de- 
clared their  belief  that  its  continuance  was  unwar- 
ranted. 

To  show  the  actual  effect  of  reciprocity  it  may  be 
of  interest  to  give  a  few  figures.  The  first  reciprocal 
agreement  was  entered  into  with  Spain  February  i, 
1891,  to  secure  trade  with  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 
April  i,  1891,  an  arrangement  was  made  with  Brazil, 
and  on  September  i  of  the  same  year  the  agreement 
with  San  Domingo  was  perfected.  With  these  ex- 
ceptions, the  other  reciprocal  treaties  under  the  law 
of  1890  were  not  concluded  until  1892. 

Generally  stated,  during  the  operation  of  the 
arrangements,  our  exports  increased  to  Guatemala, 
Salvador,  British  West  Indies,  San  Domingo,  Cuba, 
Porto  Rico,  Brazil  and  British  Guiana.  At  the  same 
time  they  decreased  to  Honduras  and  Nicaragua. 
Our  imports  increased  from  all  the  first  named  coun- 
tries excepting  Salvador,  but  from  Honduras  and 
Nicaragua  they  were  less  than  before  the  reciprocal 
arrangements  were  made. 


OUR    TARIFF   AND    TARIFF    LEGISLATION.  149 

But  it  was  with  Cuba  and  Brazil  that  reciprocity 
showed  the  most  satisfactory  results.  Our  exports 
to  Cuba  had  been  steadily  from  $10,000,000  to 
$12,000,000  annually.  In  1890.  the  year  before  re- 
ciprocity, they  amounted  to  $13,084,415.  In  1892, 
the  year  after  the  arrangement,  the  figures  jumped  to 
$I7'953-57°7  and  m  J893,  went  to  $24, 157,698,  but  in 
1894,  dropped  to  $20,125,321.  The  highest  figure 
our  imports  from  Cuba  had  ever  reached,  prior  to 
1890,  was  $70,450,652,  in  1882.  In  1892  they 
amounted  to  but  $61,714,395.  The  following  year 
they  increased  to  $77,931,671,  and  in  1893,  to 
$78,706,506. 

Reciprocity  with  Brazil  received  a  set  back  owing 
to  the  revolution  in  that  country.  Our  highest  ex- 
ports to  Brazil,  up  to  1889,  had  been  about  $9,000,000. 
The  next  year,  before  the  reciprocal  arrangement 
was  made,  they  were  $i  1,972,214.  In  1891  and  1892 
the  figures  were  over  $14,000,000,  but  in  1893, 
dropped  to  a  little  over  $12,000,000.  Before  1890 
our  imports  from  Brazil  had  never  been  much  more 
than  $60,000,000  annually.  Reciprocity  gave  a  great 
impetus  to  our  imports,  for  in  1891,  they  rose  to 
$83  230,595,  and  in  1892,  reached  the  extraordinary 
value  of  $118,633,604.  With  none  of  the  other 
countries,  except  Cuba  and  Brazil,  did  our  trade  show 
similar  percentages  of  increase. 

Whatever  be  the  ultimate  effect  of  the  abrogation 
of  the  reciprocal  treaties,  it  is  certain  that  not  all  the 
countries  which  had  enjoyed  advantages  under  them 


I5O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

were  inclined  to  accept  the  change  without  making 
some  effort  at  retaliation.  Germany,  for  instance, 
soon  after  the  passage  of  the  Law  of  1894,  began  to 
discriminate  in  the  matter  of  duties  against  certain 
American  products. 

Whatever  may  be  the  ultimate  settlement  of  the 
tariff  question  in  this  country,  the  results  of  the  elec- 
tions of  1894,  show  conclusively  that  the  people  did 
not  like  their  first  lesson  in  tariff  reform  in  recent 
years,  and  repudiated  it  at  the  ballot-box.  Time 
may  prove  to  them  that  protection  is  wrong,  but  evi- 
dently the  great  majority  must  have  been  satisfied 
with  its  workings,  and  preferred  even  its  "  robbery" 
to  the  "cheap  prices"  promised  under  tariff  reform. 
The  American  people  are  usually  inclined  to  let  well 
enough  alone.  Sometimes  they  try  experiments,  but 
when  an  experiment  costs  several  hundred  million 
dollars  they  are  apt  to  pause  and  inquire  if  they  are 
not  "  paying  too  dear  for  the  whistle." 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  People. 


THE  TARIFF  QUESTION  FROM  A  DEMO- 
CRATIC STANDPOINT. 


BY  WILLIAM   E.  RUSSELL, 

KX-GOVKRNOR   OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 


GENERAL  POSITION  OF  THE  DEMOCRATIC  PARTY. 

BEFORE  proceeding  to  a  discussion  of  the  rela- 
tions sustained  by  the  Democratic  party  to  the 
great  question  of  the  tariff,  it  is  well  to  consider 
briefly  the  nature  and  aims  of  Democracy. 

Our  party  was  not  founded  for  a  single  mission, 
which,  accomplished,  left  it  drifting  with  no  fixed  star 
of  principle  to  guide  it.  It  was  born  and  has  lived  to 
uphold  great  truths  of  government  that  need  always 
to  be  enforced.  The  influence  of  the  past  speaks  to 
us  in  the  voice  of  the  present.  Jefferson  and  Jack- 
son still  lead  us. 

Their  faith  and  ours  rests  upon  an  abiding  trust  in 
the  people,  a  belief  that  power  can  safely  be  put  into 
their  hands,  and  that  the  broader  the  foundation,  the 
safer  the  structure  of  our  government.  We  believe 
in  the  freedom  and  equality  of  all  men  in  the  affairs 


152   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

of  state  and  before  the  altar  of  their  God;  in  the  free- 
dom of  the  individual  from  unnecessary  restrictions 
and  unnecessary  burdens;  that  a  government  least 
felt  is  the  best;  that  taxation,  the  greatest  bur- 
den and  power  of  government,  shall  not  be  used 
to  enrich  the  few  at  the  expense  of  the  many, 
but  in  its  purpose  be  limited  to  the  support  of  govern- 
ment for  the  benefit  of  all,  rather  than  be  made  a 
gigantic  instrument  for  distributing  favors  or  paying 
political  debts;  that  of  itself  it  is  not  a  blessing  which 
excuses  and  demands  a  wild  extravagance,  but  a 
necessary  evil,  to  be  lessened  by  prudence  and  econ- 
omy; that  it  should  be  levied  justly,  equally,  accord- 
ing to  men's  means,  and  not  their  necessities. 

The  tariff  is  taxation,  taxation  pure  and  simple. 
The  Democratic  party,  believing  that  a  government 
has  no  right  unnecessarily  to  impose  its  burdens,  and 
after  years  of  trial,  finding  great  inequality  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  wealth,  and  great  discontent  amongst  the 
wage-earners,  has  demanded  that  this  taxation  be  re- 
considered, and  the  people  relieved  of  some  of  its 
unnecessary  burdens.  Its  principle  is  one  of  plain 
common  sense.  It  insists  that  where  a  tariff  tax  is 
laid  upon  a  necessary  of  life  which  is  the  raw  ma- 
terial of  a  great  industry,  and  such  tax  is  not  needed 
for  revenue,  then  the  tax  is  unjust,  unnecessary, 
and  injurious,  because  a  burden  on  the  people  and  a 
burden  on  their  industries.  Such  are  taxes  on  coal 
and  wool  and  crude  iron  and  the  raw  materials  of 
our  industries. 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        153 

Economy,  low  taxes,  free  wool,  free  lumber,  free 
salt,  free  coal,  cheaper  necessaries  of  life,  and  raw 
materials  that  quicken  industry,  it  believes  to  be  the 
true  American  policy.  Against  this  it  places  the  pro- 
tective policy  of  the  Republican  party  which  means, 
first,  keeping  the  burdens  of  over-taxation  on  nearly 
seventy  million  consumers ;  second,  restricting  and 
crippling  industries  by  failure  to  give  them  free  raw 
material ;  third,  raising  tariff  taxation  in  many  in- 
stances to  a  prohibitory  height;  fourth, wild  and  willful 
extravagance;  fifth,  the  absolute  abandonment  of  the 
prior  declared  policy  of  the  Republican  party.  Such 
policy  taxes  consumption,  not  wealth  ;  it  taxes  men, 
not  according  to  their  property,  but  according  to  their 
necessities.  It  is  unjust  taxation  ;  because  it  seeks 
to  warp  the  power  of  government  for  the  benefit  of 
the  few  against  the  interests  of  all  the  people,  to 
build  up  the  fortunes  of  the  few  and  then  trust  to 
their  charity  for  a  just  and  equal  distribution. 

The  Republican  policy  leads,  in  the  words  of  Sena- 
tor Plumb,  "  to  that  point  where  the  system  of  pro- 
tection as  applied  is  to  result  in  the  breaking  down 
of  certain  industries  for  the  benefit  of  others ;  where 
the  large  industries  which  have  the  most  potential 
voice  in  Congress  are  to  destroy  the  small  ones." 
Bastiat's  words  could  well  be  applied  to  the  Repub- 
lican party.  "Your  system  has  written  over  the 
entrance  of  the  legislative  halls  these  words,  '  who- 
ever acquires  any  influence  here  can  obtain  his  share 
of  the  legalized  pillage.' " 


154   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

A  government  of  bounties  and  of  benefits  by  the 
Republican  party,  for  the  use  of  that  party  and  its 
beneficiaries,  is  in  strange  contrast  to  the  old  principle 
of  "  a  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and 
for  the  people." 

HISTORY  OF  THE  MOVEMENT  FOR  TARIFF  REFORM, 
AND  THE  RECORD  OF  THE  REPUBLICAN  PARTY 
UPON  IT. 

There  are  certain  facts  in  the  tariff  discussion  that 
all  concede.  There  is  no  question  that  the  former 
tariff  was  a  war  tariff,  instituted  for  war  purposes,  but 
raised,  instead  of  lowered,  when  that  exigency  had 
passed.  There  is  no  question  that  it  was  much  higher 
than  any  tariff  this  Nation  had  ever  known  before  the 
war.  There  is  no  question  that  before  the  war  in- 
dustries thrived,  and  great  industrial  centers  like 
Lowell,  Lawrence  and  Fall  River  were  founded  and 
prosperous,  and  that  happiness  and  contentment 
reigned  throughout  the  whole  country.  The  census 
shows  that  from  the  years  1850  to  1860,  under  almost 
the  lowest  tariff  that  the  Nation  ever  had,  there  was 
an  increase  of  90  per  cent,  in  capital  invested  in  in- 
dustries, of  60  per  cent,  in  wages,  and  of  85  per  cent, 
in  products;  while  the  increase  from  1870  to  1880, 
under  almost  the  highest  tariff,  was  but  32  per  cent,  in 
capital,  22  per  cent,  in  wages,  and  27  percent,  in  pro- 
ducts. Since  the  war  it  is  conceded  there  had  been  a 
reduction  in  taxation,  but  not  in  tariff  taxation. 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        155 

Those  taxes  which  affected  especially  the  rich,  and 
were  paid  by  them,  were  gradually  taken  off ;  but 
the  taxes  which  affected  the  humble  firesides  and  the 
poorer  citizens  had  not  been  lessened,  but  on  the 
whole  increased. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  1890  that  the  Republi- 
can party  for  the  first  time  cut  loose  from  all  its 
previous  traditions  and  declared  not  only  that  an  in- 
crease in  the  tariff  duties  was  necessary  but  that  tariff 
taxation  should  be  increased  purely  for  the  sake  of 
protection  itself,  apart  from  the  question  of  revenue, 
and  so  the  official  title  of  the  McKinley  Bill  was,  "A 
bill  to  reduce  the  revenue." 

In  the  early  history  of  the  Republican  party  up  to 
the  time  of  the  war,  it  advocated  a  tariff  for  revenue, 
and  gave  its  support  to  the  lowest  tariff  the  country 
had  had  for  generations.  Sumner  and  Wilson,  and 
substantially  the  whole  New  England  delegation, 
voted  for  such  a  tariff  in  1857.  That  was  a  time 
when  industries  were  being  founded,  were  infants,  and 
needed,  if  ever,  the  right  to  tax  people  for  their 
support. 

Then  came  the  war  and  the  necessity  for  larger 
revenue,  resulting  in  the  Morrill  tariff  law.  Then 
came  higher  internal  taxes,  and,  to  offset  their  bur- 
den,  the  higher  tariff  laws  of  1862  and  1864. 

The  author  of  these  tariffs,  and  all  the  Republican 
leaders,  distinctly  declared  that  they  were  revenue 
tariffs,  and  should  be  reduced  when  the  necessity 
for  the  greater  revenue  of  the  war  was  ended. 


156   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Mr.  Morrill,  the  author  of  a  higher  tariff,  said  on 
May  8,  1860:  ''There  are  no  duties  proposed  on  any 
article  for  the  simple  purpose  of  protection  alone." 

On  June  2,  1864,  he  said  of  the  high  protection  of 
that  year:  "  This  is  intended  as  a  war  measure,  and 
we  must  as  such  give  it  our  support." 

In  1870  this  author  of  high  tariff  again  said:  "  It 
is  a  mistake  of  the  friends  of  sound  tariff  to  insist  on 
the  extreme  rates  imposed  during  the  war,  if  less 
will  raise  the  necessary  revenue." 

Senator  Sherman,  in  1867,  in  Congress,  when  not 
under  party  pressure,  said:  "  It  is  simply  an  absurd- 
ity to  talk  now  about  a  free  trade  tariff;  and  to  talk 
about  a  protective  tariff  is  unnecessary,  because  the 
wit  of  man  could  not  possibly  frame  a  tariff  that 
would  produce  $140,000,000,  in  gold  without  amply 
protecting  our  domestic  industries." 

Senator  Allison,  another  Republican  leader,  on 
March  24,  1870,  said:  "The  tariff  of  1846  (a  very 
low  tariff),  though  confessedly  and  professedly  a 
tariff  for  revenue,  was,  so  far  as  regards  all  the  great 
industries  of  the  country,  as  perfect  a  tariff  as  any 
that  we  have  ever  had." 

And  Mr.  Elaine,  in  his  work  entitled  "Twenty 
Years  of  Congress,"  writes:  "  The  principles  em- 
bodied in  the  tariff  of  1846  seemed  for  the  time  to  be 
so  entirely  vindicated  and  approved  that  resistance 
to  it  ceased,  not  only  among  the  people  but  among 
the  protective  economists,  and  even  among  the  manu- 
facturers to  a  large  extent.  So  general  was  this  ac- 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC    STANDPOINT.        157 

quiescence  that  in  1856  a  protective  tariff  was  not 
suggested  or  even  hinted  by  any  one  of  the  three  par- 
ties which  presented  Presidential  candidates." 

Here  are  the  authors  of  high  tariff  laws  and  Repub- 
lican leaders  distinctly  and  publicly  declaring  in  favor 
of  tariffs  for  revenue  only,  stating  that  their  own  high 
tariffs  were  for  this  purpose,  and  averring  that  they 
were  ample  to  protect  all  interests.  Yet  now  such 
doctrines  when  uttered  by  Democratic  lips  are  unspar- 
ingly denounced. 

Next  the  Republican  party  through  the  declarations 
of  its  leaders  declared  that  the  high  tariff  should  be 
reduced. 

In  1882  President  Arthur,  in  his  message  to  Con- 
gress, said  :  "  The  present  tariff  system  is  in  many 
respects  unjust.  It  makes  unequal  distribution  both  of 
its  burdens  and  its  benefits.  *  Without  enter- 

ing into  minute  details,  which  under  present  circum- 
stances is  quite  unnecessary,  I  recommend  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  free  list,  so  as  to  include  within  it  the 
numerous  articles  which  yield  considerable  revenue, 
and  a  substantial  reduction  of  the  duties  upon  those 
articles,  and  upon  sugar,  molasses,  silk,  wool,  and 
woolen  goods." 

The  Republican  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  in  his 
report  of  December,  1884,  said  that  there  must  be  a 
reduction  of  the  tariff,  and  he  specifically  recom- 
mended :  u  First,  that  the  existing  duties  upon  raw 
materials  which  are  to  be  used  in  manufacture  should 
be  removed.  This  can  be  done  in  the  interest  of  our 


158   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

foreign  trade.  Second,  that  the  duties  upon  the 
articles  used  or  consumed  by  those  who  are  the  least 
able  to  bear  the  burden  of  taxation,  should  be 
reduced." 

And  in  1884,  also,  Mr.  (now  Senator)  Lodge,  in 
his  State  Convention,  declared  himself  in  favor  of 
tariff  reform  by  freeing  "  entirely  those  great  neces- 
saries of  life  which  enter  into  the  daily  consumption 
of  every  household,  and  by  wise  and  discriminating 
reductions." 

In  1882,  under  a  Republican  administration,  the 
necessity  for  a  reduction  of  the  tariff  had  become  so 
great,  and  was  so  generally  conceded,  that  President 
Arthur  not  only  recommended  it,  but  also  recom- 
mended the  appointment  of  a  Tariff  Commission. 

The  Commission  as  chosen  by  him  was  made  up 
almost  wholly  of  Republicans,  and  experts  taken  from 
and  representing  all  the  great  protected  industries  of 
the  country.  Its  chairman  was  one  of  the  ablest  pro- 
tectionists in  the  country,  and  the  secretary  of  the 
Woolen  Manufacturers'  Association. 

That  Commission,  after  a  thorough  examination, 
made  a  report  speaking  of  the  "  excessively  protect- 
ive period  of  the  late  war,"  declaring  "  a  substantial 
reduction  of  tariff  duties  is  demanded  and  is  neces- 
sary *  *  *  as  a  measure  of  justice  to  consumers, 
and  conducive  to  general  industrial  prosperity;  "  and 
it  recommended  a  reduction  of  from  20  to  25  per 
cent.,  and  reductions  especially  on  steel  rails,  and 
wools  and  woolens. 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.       159 

But  the  Republican  party,  guided  and  controlled 
by  selfish  interests  and  protected  capitalists,  then  be- 
gan to  break  its  pledges  to  the  people,  and  to  retract 
its  low  tariff  declarations.  The  bill  for  reduction 
framed  by  the  Commission  came  out  of  the  secrecy  of 
the  conference  committee  room  with  a  general  rise  of 
duties,  and  later  the  Republican  party  opposed  the 
reduction  of  10  per  cent,  in  the  Morrison  Bill,  and  of 
5  per  cent,  in  the  Mills  Bill  in  1886. 

But  again,  even  as  late  as  the  campaign  of  1888,  the 
party  promised  revision  of  the  tariff,  and  only  asked 
that  the  work  be  committed  to  its  friends.  No  Re- 
publican convention  or  leader  during  that  campaign 
suggested  that  the  duties  should  be  enormously  in- 
creased. Yet  the  existing  duties  were  generally  and 
largely  raised  by  the  McKinley  Bill,  and  the  reason  is 
now  clear.  To  raise  campaign  funds  the  Republicans 
applied  to  the  protected  manufacturers  for  contribu- 
tions, and  in  the  famous  confidential  circular,  issued 
on  May  25,  1888,  by  the  Republican  League  of  the 
United  States,  and  not  intended  for  the  eye  of  the 
workingmen,  said :  "  The  campaign  which  we  are 
about  to  enter  will  concern,  more  than  anybody  else, 
the  manufacturers  of  this  country.  *  *  *  If  you 
give  us  the  means  to  win  the  victory  we  will  do  it. 
Are  you  willing?  " 

When  the  victory  was  won,  those  who  had  paid 
for  it  demanded  their  share  of  the  spoils,  and  received 
it  in  the  form  of  higher  duties.  As  the  Republican 
Senator  Plumb  said,  "Whatever  the  manufacturers 


l6o   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

have  asked  in  the  way  of  duties,  as  a  rule  has  been 
granted."  It  was  their  interest  which  was  considered 
and  many  clauses  in  the  bill  were  framed  by  them. 
Then,  having  satisfied  the  demands  of  selfish  inter- 
ests, the  Republican  party  declared  the  tariff  question 
was  settled. 

Its  record,  then,  is,  first,  cordial  approval  and  sup- 
port of  almost  the  lowest  tariff  we  have  ever  had,  and 
a  tariff  for  revenue  only;  second,  raising  the  tariff 
during  the  war  confessedly  for  revenue  only;  third, 
repeated  promises  and  pledges  to  reduce  it;  fourth, 
opposition  to  every  attempt  at  reduction,  and  the 
constant  raising  of  it  still  higher;  fifth,  demand  that 
the  question  be  considered  settled  ;  and  then  that 
party,  with  broken  pledges  and  forgotten  principles, 
boldly  declared  that  the  taxing  power  through  the 
tariff  could  and  should  be  used,  not  for  revenue,  but 
for  protection  only  to  the  annihilation  of  revenue ; 
not  for  public  purposes,  but  private  interests  ;  not 
for  the  benefit  of  the  people,  but  to  enrich  the  few. 

PROTECTION  AND  PRICES. 

The  Democratic  party,  on  the  contrary,  insists  that 
this  great  burden  of  tariff  taxation  be  lifted.  First, 
because  it  is  a  burden  to  the  consumer.  It  main- 
tains that  the  tariff  is  a  tax  and  that  the  first  effect 
of  the  high  protective  policy  of  the  Republican 
party  is  to  raise  prices  and  make  the  cost  of  living 
higher  than  it  would  be  but  for  such  tariff.  This  is 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        l6l 

its  purpose  and  object.  It  is  intended  to  shut  out 
competition,  to  protect  from  competition  by  law  as  a 
trust  does  by  mutual  agreement,  and  to  prevent 
people  buying  where  they  could  buy  the  cheapest. 
Either  protection  is  useless,  or  it  must  work  through 
higher  prices. 

The  Democratic  party  cites  for  its  evidence  the 
confession  of  the  protected  industries  in  1882,  which 
then,  through  their  Tariff  Commission,  admitted  that 
the  reduction  of  $35,000,000  of  tariff  duties  would 
benefit  consumers  by  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars. 

It  cites  John  Sherman,  who  declared  in  1867:  "  I 
said  it,  and  I  stand  by  it,  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the 
duties  paid  on  imports  operate  as  a  tax  upon  the  con- 
sumer." 

Mr.  Elaine,  in  his  "Twenty  Years  in  Congress," 
says,  speaking  of  the  increase  of  duties  on  imports  by 
the  Tariff  Act  of  July  14,  1862,  that  it  "-shut  out  still 
more  conclusively  all  competition  from  foreign  fab- 
rics. The  increased  cost  was  charged  to  the  con- 
sumer." 

John  Quincy  Adams  long  ago  declared:  "The 
duty  constitutes  the  price  of  the  whole  mass  of  the 
article  in  the  market.  It  is  substantially  paid  on  the 
article  of  domestic  manufacture,  as  well  as  on  that  of 
foreign  production." 

Does  any  one  believe  that  the  changes  raising 
duties  made  by  the  McKinley  Bill  were  made  for  the 
purpose  of  lowering  prices  ?  How  were  they  brought 

about  ?     Did  the  people  ask  for  them  ?  In  every  case 
1 1 


162   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

it  will  be  found  that  the  people  who  had  goods  to  sell 
made  this  demand.  It  was  the  political  shepherds  of 
Ohio  who  had  wool  to  sell  that  demanded  the  higher 

o 

duties  upon  wool.  It  was  the  iron  owners  of  Penn- 
sylvania who  had  iron  and  steel  to  sell  that  wanted  a 
higher  tariff  upon  these  articles.  It  was  the  Lime 
Trust  with  lime  to  sell,  and  the  Glass  Trust  with  glass 
to  sell,  and  the  owners  of  the  coal  mines  of  Pennsyl- 
vania with  coal  to  sell,  these  are  the  men  who  made 
the  demand  and  who  always  stand  behind  high  tariff 
duties.  Does  any  one  think  that  they  wanted  high 
or  higher  duties  to  make  the  goods  cheaper  which 
they  had  to  sell  ?  It  is  absurd  on  the  face  of  it. 

It  must  be  true  that  the  consumer  pays  the  tax 
on  the  imported  articles,  because  otherwise  the  tariff 
could  not  be  a  benefit  to  the  home  producer.  If  the 
consumer  here  pays  no  more  for  the  imported  article 
because  of  the  tariff,  his  purchase  will  not  be  affected 
whether  tariff  is  high  or  low,  and  he  will  be  no  more 
apt  to  buy  here  than  abroad.  Unless,  then,  the  con- 
sumer pays  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  production, 
the  manufacturer  in  this  country  cannot  produce  and 
sell.  Hence  the  consumer  pays  a  price  for  the  home 
goods  higher  than  the  price  of  the  foreign  articles 
owing  to  the  tax. 

The  protectionists  contradict  themselves  in  their 
own  McKinley  Bill,  by  pointing  out  that  the  taking  off 
of  the  tax  on  sugar  reduced  the  price  from  one  to  two 
cents.  If  this  was  so,  then  the  imposition  of  the  tax 
must  raise  the  price  to  the  consumer.  And  if  reduc- 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.       163 

ing  the  tax  on  sugar  is  a  benefit  to  every  person 
who  consumes  sugar,  why  is  not  reducing  the  tax  on 
woolens,  and  coal,  and  iron,  and  hats,  and  buttons, 
and  other  household  necessities,  a  benefit  to  every 
consumer.  The  price  that  every  consumer  pays  for 
protection  is  well  illustrated  by  the  effects  of  the  tax 
upon  tin  plate,  which  was  raised  by  the  McKinley 
Bill  from  i  to  2  2-10  per  lb.,  increasing  in  one  year  the 
duties  paid  from  $7,000,000  to  $15,000,000.  The 
direct  result  of  this  tax  was  to  raise  the  price  of  a  box 
of  tin  plates  in  this  country  from  $4.45  in  May,  1890, 
to  $5.37,  in  August,  1892,  a  rise  of  92  cents,  while  in 
the  same  period  in  England  the  price  fell  24  1-2  cents. 
So  to  the  whole  canning  industry  in  this  country, 
employing  thousands  of  persons,  and  to  every  person 
using  tin  utensils,  and  tin  plates,  the  price  of  tin  was 
raised  —  for  what  ?  In  order  to  protect  a  tin  plate 
industry  which  did  not  exist  at  the  time  of  the  bill, 
and  which  in  June,  1892,  only  produced  2  per  cent, 
of  our  total  consumption  of  tin  plate.  Opposed  to 
this  policy  of  raising  the  price  of  necessities  to  the 
whole  people  for  the  benefit  of  a  few  manufacturers 
to  support  or  build  up  an  industry  by  taxation,  is  the 
Democratic  policy  of  reduction  of  duties.  It  says  to 
the  workingman,  "remove  the  taxes  and  you  make 
the  raw  materials  and  their  products  cheaper.  If 
wool,  for  instance,  is  cheaper,  clothing  is  cheaper ;  if 
clothing  is  cheaper,  there  is  a  greater  demand  for  it. 
You  and  I  might  buy  two  suits,  perhaps,  where  now 
we  buy  one.  If  there  is  a  greater  demand,  then  more 


164   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

clothes  must  be  made.  Then  comes  more  work,  a 
greater  demand  for  labor.  Then  come  the  two  jobs 
looking  for  the  one  man,  instead  of  the  two  men  for 
the  one  job,  and  then  necessarily  comes  higher  wages." 

The  necessary  effect  of  the  McKinley  Act  and  of  all 
protection  is  to  enable  the  manufacturers  of  protected 
articles  at  home  to  keep  up  the  prices  to  a  certain 
figure,  no  matter  what  may  be  the  diminution  in  the 
cost  of  their  raw  material,  or  in  the  wages  of  their 
laborers,  because  the  high  duty  protects  them  against 
competition  abroad,  so  long  as  they  keep  their  prices 
just  below  the  point  which  would  enable  the  importer 
to  bring  them  in  and  realize  a  profit  after  paying  the 
duty. 

No  one  doubts  that  all  the  forces  of .  civilization, 
with  every  improvement  in  machinery,  and  skill,  and 
transportation,  are  constantly  fighting  for  lower  prices 
No  one  doubts  that  they  can  in  course  of  time  reduce 
prices,  notwithstanding  the  protective  tariff.  No  one 
claims  that  the  tariff  tax  can  wholly  offset  and  defeat 
the  progressive  reduction  of  prices  which  these  forces 
accomplish;  but  just  as  surely  as  they  fight  for  lower 
prices,  a  protective  tariff  tax  stands  in  their  way, 
fighting  for  higher  prices. 

The  celebrated  Report  of  the  Senate  Finance  Com- 
mittee in  1892  clearly  proves  this,  showing  that  75  of 
the  214  articles  embraced  within  it  increased  in  price 
while  139  articles  decreased  in  price.  Of  the  75  in- 
creasing in  price,  54,  or  72  per  cent.,  had  their  duties 
increased  by  the  McKinley  Bill,  while  of  the  139 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        165 

articles  decreasing  in  price,  92,  or  66  per  cent.,  had 
their  duties  unaltered  or  reduced  by  that  bill.  An 
examination  of  the  82  articles  upon  which  there  has 
been  no  change  of  tariff  duty  by  the  McKinley  Bill, 
shows  that  65,  or  79  per  cent.,  of  them  fell  in  price, 
while  only  17,  or  21  per  cent,  increased  in  price. 
While  of  the  31  articles  upon  which  the  tariff  duties 
were  decreased,  27,  or  89  per  cent,  fell  in  price,  and 
4,  or  1 1  per  cent,  increased  in  price.  There  were  101 
articles  upon  which  tariff  duties  were  increased.  Of 
these,  54,  or  53  per  cent,  increased  in  price,  and  47, 
or  47  per  cent.,  decreased  in  price. 

The  Democratic  party  maintains  that  a  protective 
duty  raises  prices  and  the  cost  of  living  higher  than 
they  otherwise  would  be,  and  to  that  extent  it  is  a 
burden  which  enters  into  every  home  and  is  felt  by 
every  individual. 

This  fact  was  conceded  in  the  official  declaration 
of  Mr.  McKinley,  the  author  of  the  bill,  in  his  report, 
submitting  it  to  Congress.  Speaking  for  his  com- 
mittee, he  said:  "  We  have  not  been  so  much  con- 
cerned about  the  prices  of  the  articles  we  consume  as 
we  have  been  to  encourage  a  system  of  home  pro- 
duction." Then  he  continues:  "  We  have  not  be- 
lieved that  our  people,  already  suffering  from  low 
prices,  can  or  will  be  satisfied  with  legislation  which 
will  result  in  lower  prices."  But  do  people  suffer 
from  low  prices  ?  Does  the  head  of  a  family,  earn- 
ing his  $1.50  per  day,  with  a  half  dozen  little  ones 
to  support,  suffer  when  coal  is  $1.00  a  ton  less,  or 


166   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

flour  $1.00  a  barrel  cheaper?  The  McKinley  Bill 
and  policy  says  yes,  and  proposed  to  stop  such  a 
calamity. 

REPUBLICAN  THEORY  OF  THE  FOREIGNER  PAYING  THE 

TAX. 

The  protectionist  may  endeavor  to  escape  from  the 
conclusion  that  a  tariff  raises  prices  by  saying  it  is 
not  the  consumer  but  the  foreign  exporter  who  pays 
the  tax.  Let  us  consider  this  a  moment.  For  ex- 
ample, from  October,  1890,  to  July,  1891,  the  value  of 
the  common  woolen  dress  goods  imported  here  was 
$5,280,841.  The  tax  upon  them  was  $5,423,422, 
making  the  cost  to  the  importer  at  New  York  $10,- 
704,264.  If  the  foreigner  paid  the  tax  then  he  actu- 
ally donated  $5,280,841  worth  of  goods  to  us  and 
paid  us  $142,000  more  in  money  to  induce  us  to  take 
them. 

Furthermore,  if  the  foreigner  pays  the  tax  why 
should  the  woolen  manufacturer  here  have  been  given 
an  additional  duty  on  the  foreign  goods  imported 
exactly  equivalent  to  and  measured  by  the  tax  on  the 
amount  of  wool  which  enters  into  the  manufacture  of 
native  goods,  and  so  called  a  compensatory  duty  ? 
He  received  this  compensatory  duty  of  33  to  44  cents 
per  pound,  on  woolen  cloth  imported  simply  because 
the  tax  on  the  raw  wool  compelled  him  to  pay  more 
for  it  than  if  it  were  untaxed  if  he  desired  to  use  it  in 
making  his  own  cloths.  Clearly  the  foreigner  did  not 
pay  the  duty  on  wool  in  this  instance,  or  else  we  were 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        167 

making  a  mere  present  to  the  manufacturer  of  the 
compensatory  duty. 

Further,  the  McKinley  Act  provided  that  when  raw 
materials  subject  to  duty  are  imported  into  the  United 
States  and  converted  here  into  manufactured  articles 
which  are  exported  for  sale  abroad,  the  domestic 
manufacturer,  producer,  or  exporter  shall  have  a 
drawback  equal  to  the  amount  of  duty  paid,  less 
one  per  cent.  If  the  foreigner  paid  that  duty,  why 
in  the  name  of  common  sense  and  common  honesty 
did  we  pass  a  law  to  pay  it  back  not  to  him  but  to 
somebody  else,  as  for  example,  to  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  who  exports  oil  in  cans  made  from  im- 
ported tin  plate. 

PROTECTION  AND  THE  MANUFACTURERS. 

Second.  The  protective  tariff  on  raw  materials  is 
a  burden  to  our  manufacturers. 

Take  first,  the  tariff  on  wool,  whom  has  that  bene- 
fited ?  Certainly  not  the  consumers,  who  have  had  to 
pay  just  so  much  more  for  their  clothing  because  of 
the  increased  price  of  foreign  wool  to  the  manu- 
facturer. Certainly  not  the  wool-grower.  From 
1867  to  1891,  the  number  of  sheep  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi river  only  increased  4,000,000,  the  number 
east  decreased  11,000,000,  and  the  price  of  wool  has 
steadily  fallen  under  high  tariffs.  The  price  was 
50  3-4  cents  in  1867.  The  tariff  duty  was  increased 
and  the  price  fell  to  46  cents.  In  1890  the  price  was 
33  cents.  In  1891,  after  the  McKinley  Bill,  31  cents, 


168   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

and  in  1893,  25  cents.  The  success  of  the  wool- 
growers  here  depends  upon  that  of  the  woolen  manu- 
facturers. We  may  take  the  declaration  of  the 
latter  as  to  their  own  condition.  In  1889,  524 
manufacturers  and  dealers  in  wool  and  woolen 
goods  petitioned  Congress  for  free  wool,  and  196 
others  for  a  reduction  in  duties.  In  those  petitions 
they  referred  to  '*  the  present  depression  in  the  wool 
manufacturing  industry,"  and  added  :  "  As  the  only 
civilized  country  in  the  world,  so  far  as  we  are  in- 
formed, which  levies  a  duty  on  raw  wool,  we  ask 
that  American  industry  may  be  relieved  of  this  un- 
natural burden,  and  that  our  domestic  wool  interests 
may  now  be  put  on  the  same  wholesome  basis  as 
the  cotton  manufacturing  industry,  with  free  raw 
material." 

On  June  14,  1890,  the  Wool  Consumers'  Associa- 
tion, in  a  petition  to  Congress  signed  by  such  well- 
known  men  as  Arthur  T.  Lyman,  Jesse  Metcalf,  and 
others,  and  by  such  famous  companies  as  the  Lowell 
Manufacturing  Company,  the  Wanskuck,  Weybosset, 
and  others,  said  :  "  For  the  protection  of  the  wool 
manufacture  of  this  country,  and  for  its  rescue  from  a 
most  hampered  and  depressed  condition,  we  ask  for 
a  great  reduction  or  a  total  abolition  of  the  duty  on 
wool." 

The  value  of  woolen  goods  made  in  Massachusetts 
in  1865  was  $31,550,081,  and  in  1885  was  $31,748,278, 
and  the  number  of  hands  employed  increased  only 
from  18,965  to  18,970. 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC    STANDPOINT.        169 

The  protectionist  paper,  the  American  Wool  and 
Cotton  Reporter,  on  July  23,  1891,  said:  "The  wool 
industry  in  several  departments  shows  greater  depres- 
sion to-day  than  before  the  passage  of  the  McKinley 
Bill.  *  *  *  If  the  expected  benefits  from  the 
tariff  are  to  come,  they  are  certainly  a  long  time  in 
materializing." 

On  August  6,  1891,  it  said  editorially :  "  The 
woolen  mills  have  had  a  long  and  exhausting  period 
of  depression.  Their  business  was  dull  and  unsatis- 
factory when  the  iron  trade  was  active,  when  the  shoe 
and  leather  interest  was  profitable,  and  when  the 
cotton  mills  were  enjoying  the  handsome  dividends 
of  the  year  1889  and  1890." 

Until  its  change  of  policy  in  1894,  the  United 
States  was  about  the  only  civilized  country  which 
taxed  wool.  France  and  Germany,  with  high  pro- 
tection, as  well  as  free  trade  England,  admit  wool 
free.  Even  here  there  was  but  a  light  tax  on  wool 
until  the  war. 

The  Democratic  party  says  that  because  a  tariff  tax 
on  wool  is  a  burden  to  the  industry,  the  manufacturer 
claims  and  gets  additional  duty  on  his  goods,  exactly 
equivalent  to,  and  measured  by  the  tax  on  the  amount 
of  wool  which  enters  into  their  manufacture,  and  even 
called  a  compensatory  duty. 

It  notes  one  important  effect  of  such  a  duty.  The 
manufacturer,  shut  out  from  getting  the  wool  of  the 
world,  or  compelled  to  pay  a  high  price,  has  been 
forced  to  use  adulterants  more  than  ever  before  in 


I7O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  manufacture  of  his  goods,  and  so  the  people  are 
getting  more  and  more  shoddy,  and  less  and  less  of 
woolen  clothing  and  other  goods.  Since  1890  there 
has  been  an  increase  in  shoddy  mills  of  44  per  cent, 
a  remarkable  increase  in  the  use  of  such  materials  as 
shoddy,  animal  hair,  and  other  substitutes  for  wool, 
and  a  noticeable  increase  also  of  the  import  of  these 
wool  substitutes.  So  that  in  place  of  pure  wool,  our 
manufacturers  are  being  steadily  compelled,  because 
of  this  high  duty  on  foreign  wools,  to  substitute  for 
it  old  rags,  cast-off  clothing,  animal  hair,  and  cotton 
extracts. 

It  declares  that  with  wools  free,  our  woolen  manu- 
facturers, and  especially  the  carpet  men,  will  be  able 
to  export  and  compete  abroad. 

In  the  carpet  industry,  it  is  necessary  to  mix  the 
lower  grade  wools  with  the  finer.  The  lower  grade 
wools  cannot  be  raised  in  this  country  at  all,  and  yet 
they  have  been  heavily  taxed,  and  the  price  of  car- 
pets consequently  so  raised  that  the  manufacturer 
cannot  export.  With  the  lower  grade  wools  free,  not 
only  will  the  price  be  reduced,  but  the  consumption 
of  native  wools  will  be  largely  increased  because  of 
the  increased  demand  for  the  mixture. 

It  notes  what  the  manufacturers  themselves  say  as 
to  the  benefit  of  free  wool. 

Mr.  Bleakie  declares,  "  We  could  sell  our  surplus 
in  foreign  markets  profitably,  if  wool  and  all  necessary 
dyes  and  chemicals  were  free,  just  as  well  as  cotton 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        1 71 

and  shoe  manufacturers,  who  both  sell  their  surplus 
that  way." 

Mr.  Ayers,  of  Philadelphia,  a  leading  manufacturer 
of  blankets,  declares,  "  Free  wool  means  to  the  people 
cheap,  good  clothes,  better  food,  and  happier  homes." 

Mr.  Metcalf,  of  Providence,  the  head  of  large 
woolen  mills,  says,  "With  free  wool,  we  have  not 
half  enough  machinery  in  this  country  to  supply  the 
demands  for  goods." 

And  it  says  remove  the  tax  on  wool,  allow  the 
manufacturers  to  manufacture  cloth  cheaper.  Then 
surely  will  follow  greater  demand,  increased  output, 
increase  in  number  of  factories,  increase  in  trade  and 
export,  greater  demand  for  workingmen,  better  wages 
and  cheaper  clothes. 

Take  the  iron  industry.  How  does  this  great  in- 
dustry stand  to-day  under  high  protective  tariff  taxa- 
tion ?  Let  me  turn  to  Republican  authorities  for  a 
statement  of  the  facts,  and  let  the  usual  Republican 
answer,  that  he  who  states  these  facts  is  "  calamity 
shrieking,"  be  given  by  that  party  to  its  own  utter- 
ances. 

First,  I  quote  from  the  Census  Bulletin,  No.  156, 
of  January  18,  1892,  on  the  manufactures  of  iron  and 
steel  in  the  New  England  States,  issued  by  Mr.  Por- 
ter, the  Superintendent  of  the  Census,  and  prepared 
by  his  special  agents.  It  shows,  in  the  first  place, 
that  iron  and  steel  establishments  in  New  England 
from  1880  to  1890,  decreased  from  61  to  35,  and  the 
number  of  workingmen  employed  from  8,654  to  6,645. 


172   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

In  February,  1889,  a  petition  was  sent  to  Congress 
signed  by  598  iron  and  steel  manufacturers  of  New 
England,  most  of  them  Republicans,  including  the 
Governor  of  Massachusetts,  Oliver  Ames,  which  de- 
clared that  the  duty  on  pig  iron  was  "  wiping  out  the 
iron  and  steel  industry,"  but  said,  "  there  is  no  ne- 
cessity for  letting  it  die ;  it  is  only  the  existing  duties 
on  coal,  ore,  and  crude  iron  that  are  strangling  these 
industries ;  and  the  abolition  of  these  duties  will  not 
only  keep  it  alive,  but  will  insure  it  a  renewed  vital- 
ity, a  large  increase,  and  will  add  more  largely  to  the 
wealth  and  population  of  New  England  than  any  pos- 
sible legislation  upon  any  other  subject." 

I  also  quote  the  authority  of  John  Roach  and  Mr. 
Cramp,  the  great  ship-builders,  who  have  said  that  \vith 
free  iron  ore  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware,  they  could 
build  vessels  as  cheaply  as  they  could  be  built  on  the 
Clyde  ;  the  words  of  Mr.  Bent,  president  of  one  of 
the  largest  iron  and  steel  companies  of  Pennsylvania, 
who  said  that  with  free  raw  material  he  could  "lay 
down  pig  iron  in  Liverpool,  and  send  steel  rails  to 
London  ;"  the  assertions  of  great  manufacturers  like 
Mr.  Sargent  of  Connecticut,  and  many  others  to  the 
same  effect.  Mr.  Sargent  shows  that  in  certain 
branches  of  the  hardware  business,  it  is  necessary  to 
use  a  mixture  of  foreign  irons  with  domestic,  and  yet 
those  foreign  irons  are  so  heavily  taxed  that  he  can 
produce  that  line  of  goods  only  for  domestic  con- 
sumption, whereas  with  the  tax  off  he  could  compete 
abroad,  thus  increasing  the  output  of  his  works,  em- 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        173 

ploying  more  men,  and  making  the  goods  cheaper  to 
consumers  in  this  country. 

Who  then  is  benefited  by  this  tariff  taxation  ?  The 
Iron  Age,  of  January  30,  1890,  referring  to  the  bene- 
ficiaries of  the  tariff  protection,  said,  "  The  iron  ore 
mining  companies  of  the  Lake  Superior  region  are 
now  reaping  enormous  profits,"  one  company  earning 
25  per  cent,  dividend,  another  more  than  its  entire 
capital  in  fifteen  months.  These  profits  came  from 
taxation  of  the  people,  and  were  made  possible  by 
the  destruction  of  like  industries  in  other  sections. 

The  Democratic  party  says  to  manufacturers,  with 
cheaper  raw  material,  the  finished  product  is  cheaper; 
its  cheaper  price  makes  greater  demand;  the  greater 
demand  makes  more  work  and  higher  wages;  gives 
our  manufacturers  a  better  chance  in  foreign  markets 
with  the  manufacturers  of  other  countries  whose 
goods  are  cheaper  because  of  free  material.  Thus 
our  people  might  have  an  opportunity  of  extending 
their  sales  beyond  the  limits  of  home  consumption, 
saving  them  from  the  depression,  interruption  in  busi- 
ness, and  loss  caused  by  a  glutted  domestic  market, 
and  affording  their  employees  more  certain  and 
steady  labor,  with  its  resulting  quiet  and  content- 
ment. 

It  says,  look  at  the  leather  industry.  In  1872  the 
Republican  party  took  off  the  taxes  upon  hides,  and 
immediately  there  followed  a  great  growth  of  the 
leather  and  shoe  industries.  Exports  of  leather  in- 
creased from  $500,000,  to  nearly  $10,000,000  a  year, 


174   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

going  into  the  markets  of  the  world  with  a  profit  in 
competition  with  the  labor  of  the  world.  So  that 
when  in  1890  hides  were  threatened  with  a  duty, 
there  came  an  earnest  protest  from  the  boot  and  shoe 
manufacturers  in  the  country  against  that  tax  as  a 
burden  to  their  industry.  Mr.  McKinley  said  there 
was  just  as  much  reason  for  taxing  hides  as  wool. 
He  was  right,  but  he  did  not  put  back  the  duty.  If 
free  hides  benefit  the  leather  industry,  and  free  rags 
the  paper  industry,  free  silk  the  silk  industry,  why 
should  not  free  wool  and  free  iron  and  free  coal  be 
a  benefit  to  these  other  industries  and  to  the  persons 
who  have  to  buy  their  products  ? 

PROTECTION  AND  TRUSTS. 

The  protective  system  is,  first,  a  burden  to  the 
people  by  increasing  the  cost  of  living;  next,  a  bur- 
den to  our  industries  by  limiting  our  market  to  a 
home  market  and  there  even  limiting  the  sales  more 
than  they  would  be  with  free  raw  material  because  it 
raises  the  cost  and  so  lessens  the  demand  for  the  pro- 
duct. Let  us  see  what  next  follows.  Inevitably  the 
formation  of  trusts,  which  raise  prices,  reduce  produc- 
tion, and  lessen  the  amount  of  work  and  wages. 
With  no  outlet  abroad  for  over-production,  and  a 
lessened  demand  at  home  by  high  cost,  the  manufac- 
turer turns  to  the  trust  to  remedy  his  trouble- 
Through  the  trust  he  controls  and  raises  prices,  and 
through  it  he  controls  and  limits  production.  With 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        I  75 

lessened  production  comes  less  work;  and  then  men 
out  of  employment,  and  necessarily  less  wages. 

Instead  of  urging  the  manufacturer  to  enter  the 
markets  of  the  world,  and  giving  him  as  the  means  to 
do  it  free  raw  material,  the  Republican  policy  compels 
him  to  stay  at  home,  and  invites  him  to  form  a  trust. 
Protection  from  competition  from  without  gives  him 
his  opportunity.  Over-production  at  home  or  desire 
for  enormous  profit  furnishes  the  incentive. 

Take  one  instance  of  such  a  trust,  the  steel  rail 
trust.  What  are  the  facts  ? 

First,  a  protective  tariff  tax  of  $  1 3.44  per  ton.  This 
is  a  higher  tax  than  the  total  labor  cost  of  the  steel 
rail  from  the  mining  of  the  ore  to  the  time  of  the 
finished  product.  It  is  four  times  higher  than  the 
difference  in  wages  here  and  abroad  as  claimed  by 
the  Republican  party  to  exist  in  that  industry. 

Now  note  the  next  fact.  This  duty  accomplishes 
its  real  purpose,  and  absolutely  excludes  all  competi- 
tion from  without.  The  next  step  inevitably  follows, 
the  formation  of  a  trust  to  exclude  competition  from 
within.  So  we  find  the  six  largest  companies,  headed 
by  the  Illinois  Steel  Company  and  Mr.  Carnegie,  with 
an  annual  capacity  of  nearly  three  millions  of  tons, 
formed  into  such  a  trust. 

Having  effectually  disposed  of  competition,  this 
trust  then  determines  how  much  profit  it  will  extort 
from  the  people.  For  the  year  1891  they  fixed  the 
price  of  steel  rails  at  $30  a  ton.  Yet  Mr.  Carroll  D. 
Wright,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor,  de- 


176   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

clared  that  the  actual  cost  of  standard  rails  was  and 
had  been  for  some  time  about  $22  per  ton  at  the 
works.  Here  then  is  $8  per  ton  profit  on  a  capacity 
for  3,000,000  tons  fixed  by  a  trust  under  shelter  of 
the  Republican  protective  tariff  on  steel  rails. 

John  Sherman  recognized  the  sheltering  influence 
of  a  protective  tariff  upon  trusts  when  he  declared, 
October  15,  1889,  "  Whenever  this  free  competition 
is  evaded  or  avoided  by  combination  of  individuals, 
or  corporations,  the  duties  should  be  reduced,  and 
foreign  competition  promptly  invited." 

If  reducing  the  duty  can  remedy  the  evil,  then  a 
high  tariff  stands  responsible  for  its  existence.  In 
1 892  there  was  a  list  of  1 39  of  such  trusts,  "  combines  " 
and  monopolies,  every  one  of  them  in  a  protected  in- 
dustry, and  in  58  of  them  additional  protection  was 
given  under  the  McKinley  law. 

In  a  word,  the  necessity  of  combination  to  main- 
tain the  price  of  any  commodity  to  the  tariff  point, 
furnishes  proof  that  some  one  is  willing  to  accept 
lower  prices  for  such  commodity,  and  that  such  prices 
are  remunerative  ;  and  hence  that  protection  is  not 
really  needed  at  so  high  a  rate  of  duty.  Thus,  where 
either  of  these  conditions  exist,  a  case  would  seem  to 
be  presented  for  an  easy  reduction  of  taxation. 

PROTECTION  AND  THE  FARMER. 

Fourth.  Protection  is  a  burden  to  the  farmers. 
The  Republicans  say  that  they  make  a  home  market 
for  agricultural  products  by  their  tariff  policy,  that 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        1/7 

they  indirectly  give  a  benefit  to  agriculture  by  build- 
ing up  communities  for  farmers  to  feed. 

The  Republican  goes  to  the  farmer  and  says : 
Protection  raises  the  price  of  what  you  sell,  and  re- 
duces the  price  of  the  manufactured  articles  that  you 
buy.  Hence  you  are  benefited.  But  when  the  Re- 
publican goes  to  the  manufacturer,  he  says  :  Pro- 
tection raises  the  price  of  the  manufactured  article 
that  you  sell,  and  makes  the  article  that  you  consume 
cheaper.  Hence  you  are  benefited.  The  farmer 
must  see  the  contradiction  of  these  arguments  and 
reason  for  himself  how  little  protection  helps  him. 

Let  us  state  the  account  between  the  farmer  and 
the  tariff,  and  see  how  he  comes  out,  what  burdens 
and  benefits  he  gets  from  it.  In  any  scheme  of  taxa- 
tion the  interest  of  the  farmer  ought  to  be  most  care- 
fully considered.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  people  in 
this  country  who  are  engaged  in  gainful  occupa- 
tions are  farmers ;  far  more  are  so  engaged  than  in 
manufactures.  Their  condition  is  well  known.  From 
all  sides  come  up  the  cries  of  low  prices  for  farm  pro- 
ducts, impoverished  conditions  of  the  farmers,  and 
decrease  in  the  value  and  number  of  farms. 

The  reason  why  farmers  all  over  the  country  are 
suffering  is,  I  think,  a  plain  and  simple  one.  By  the 
Republican  tariff  policy,  most  that  they  buy  has  been 
raised  in  price;  but  the  price  of  most  that  they  sell 
is  fixed  in  competition  with  the  labor  of  the  world, 
and  is  not  raised  by  tariff  taxes.  The  price  of 
farm  products  in  New  England,  no  doubt,  is  low- 
12 


178   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

ered  by  western  competition,  but  the  price  of  west- 
ern products  is  fixed  by  the  price  they  sell  for 
in  England  in  competition  with  the  world.  Our 
farms  produce  much  more  than  our  people  con- 
sume, and  the  surplus  must  find  a  market  abroad. 
Unless  it  did  this,  there  would  be  a  glut  of  the 
market  here,  and  a  still  further  lowering  of  prices. 
So  each  year  we  export  enormous  quantities  of  grains 
and  bread-stuffs,  but  under  the  Republican  tariff 
policy,  which  discourages  foreign  trade,  and  looks 
upon  commerce  as  a  sin,  our  exports  of  these  articles 
have  been  declining,  while  the  exports  of  the  same 
articles  from  India  and  other  nations  have  increased. 
Our  exports  of  breadstuffs  declined  from  1880  to 
1889  to  the  extent  of  $165,000,000  ;  of  wheat,  from 
144,000,000  bushels  to  46,000,000  bushels.  In  1880, 
we  furnished  69  per  cent,  of  all  the  foreign  wheat 
consumed  in  European  markets,  and  in  1889  but  a 
little  over  20  per  cent.  In  1891  and  1892  bad  crops 
in  Europe  and  extraordinary  large  crops  here  in- 
creased our  exports  of  grain,  but  the  farmer  cannot 
and  does  not  expect  those  conditions  every  year. 

What  is  to  become  of  the  farmer  of  the  West  if 
the  amount  of  his  product  is  constantly  increasing, 
but  the  foreign  market  for  it  constantly  diminishing? 

Mr.  Elaine  appreciated  this  difficulty  when  he  said 
that  our  great  need  was  to  extend  our  trade  and  get 
additional  foreign  markets,  and  showed  that  he  was 
well  aware  of  the  burden  of  the  McKinley  tariff  on 
the  farmer  when  he  said,  "  there  is  not  a  line  or  sec- 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.       179 

tion  of  it  which  will  open  up  a  market  for  another 
bushel  of  wheat  or  barrel  of  pork." 

The  Democratic  policy  is  to  reduce  the  price  of 
articles  which  the  farmer  consumes  by  reducing  the 
tariff  tax  and  to  increase  foreign  trade  giving  the 
farmer  a  chance  to  export  more  of  his  food  products 
to  pay  for  goods  imported. 

What  did  the  McKinley  Bill  do  for  him?  It 
gave  him  only  a  mock  protection.  For  instance,  it 
doubled  the  protective  tariff  duties  on  beef  and  pork, 
though  we  export  about  $100,000,000  worth  of  these 
articles,  and  import  only  about  $500,000  worth.  What 
possible  good  can  the  farmer  get  by  a  tariff  on  such 
articles  under  these  circumstances? 

It  raised  the  tariff  duties  on  butter  and  cheese, 
though  we  export  12  times  as  much  cheese  as  we  im- 
port, and  350  times  as  much  butter  as  we  import.  It 
raised  the  tariff  protection  on  wheat,  though  in  1889 
we  exported  over  46,000,000  bushels,  and  imported  a 
little  over  2,000  ;  on  corn,  though  in  1889  we  ex- 
ported 69,000,000  bushels  and  imported  about  2,000; 
on  rye  the  tariff  tax  was  left  at  10  cents,  though  we 
exported  287,000  bushels,  and  imported  16  bushels. 

Does  any  farmer  believe  that  a  high-tariff  tax  on 
these  1 6  bushels  would  affect  the  price  of  rye  in  this 
country  ? 

PROTECTION  AND  WAGES. 

But  the  Republicans  say  that  all  these  high-tariff 
taxes  with  their  evident  burdens  have  been  for  the 


1 80   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

benefit  of  labor.  They  try  to  persuade  the  working- 
man  that  taxation  taken  out  of  him  to  benefit  the  few 
is  the  panacea  for  all  his  woes. 

The  truth  is  that  these  tariff  taxes  are  put  on  in 
the  name  of  labor,  but  labor  does  not  get  them.  The 
Republicans  say  first  that  it  is  because  of  protection 
that  our  wages  are  high,  that  a  reduction  of  the  tariff 
means  to  our  workingmen  lower  wages  for  them. 
You  may,  however,  make  any  comparison  you  please, 
and  you  cannot  show  that  a  high  tariff  fixes  or  raises 
wages.  You  may  compare  free-trade  England  with 
the  high  protective  tariff  countries  of  Europe,  and 
you  will  find  wages  lower  under  protection  on  the 
continent  than  in  England.  You  may  compare  Eng- 
land under  a  high  tariff  and  a  low  tariff,  and  at  the 
time  when  she  had  no  protective  tariff,  and  you  will 
find  that  the  wages  were  highest  when  the  tariff  was 
lowest. 

In  our  own  country  you  may  compare  the  period 
from  1850  to  1860,  when  we  had  our  lowest  tariff, 
with  the  period  from  1870  to  1880,  when  we  had  a 
very  high  tariff,  and  you  will  find  that  in  manufac- 
turing industries  during  the  first  period  wages  in- 
creased 60  per  cent.,  and  during  the  last  period  only 
22  per  cent. 

You  may  compare  the  wages  in  highly  protected 
industries,  and  those  in  industries  which  are  not  pro- 
tected, and  you  will  find  the  highest  wages  in  the  in- 
dustries where  there  is  the  least  protection.  Or  you 
may  go  farther,  and  compare  wages  in  the  different 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        l8l 

States  in  this  country,  between  which  there  is  abso- 
lute free  trade,  and  you  will  find  often  a  greater  dif- 
ference between  the  wages  in  different  States  than 
the  difference  between  wages  here  and  in  England. 

In  the  first  place,  let  us  compare  what  they  call  free- 
trade  England  with  other  countries  that  are  highly 
protected  and  notice  their  scale  of  wages. 

The  wages  in  the  cotton  industry  in  England  are 
50  per  cent,  higher  than  those  in  Germany,  and  30 
per  cent,  higher  than  those  in  France,  while  the 
hours  of  labor  in  England  are  shorter.  In  the  woolen 
industry  wages  are  50  per  cent,  higher  in  England 
than  in  Germany,  and  from  20  to  35  per  cent,  higher 
than  in  France.  Yet  France  and  Germany  are  both 
highly  protected  countries,  and  England  has  a  low 
tariff.  Why  are  wages  not  highest  in  these  protec- 
ted countries  ? 

If  we  come  to  our  own  country  for  comparisons, 
we  have  had  here  a  high  tariff  and  a  low  tariff.  We 
have  had  a  low,  a  very  low  tariff  long  before  England 
had.  During  our  lowest  tariff  period  from  1850  to 
1860,  wages  increased  in  the  United  SLC^?<>  60  per 
cent,  while  under  high  tariff  from  1870  to  1880,  they 
increased  only  22  per  cent. 

If  high  wages  are  due  to  a  high  tariff,  we  surely 
ought  to  find  them  highest  in  the  industries  that  are 
protected,  and  lowest  in  those  industries  that  are  not 
protected.  But  the  fact  is  exactly  the  reverse. 

Taking  the  census  of  1880,  and  dividing  the  total 
wages  in  an  industry  by  the  number  of  men  employed 


1 82   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

in  that  industry,  you  will  find  that  the  wages  are 
almost  invariably  less  in  the  protected  industry,  than 
in  the  one  that  has  little  or  no  protection.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  protected  cotton  industry,  the  wages 
average  $245,  while  the  wages  of  carpenters,  who  are 
unprotected,  average  $454.  In  the  manufacture  of 
men's  clothing  (protected),  wages  average  $286,  but 
the  wages  of  bakers,  (unprotected),  $419.  In  silk 
goods,  $292,  but  meat  packing,  $385  ;  machine 
making,  $455,  but  printing  and  publishing,  $522; 
iron  and  steel,  $393,  but  stone  work,  $477. 

Between  the  different  States  of  the  United  States 
there  is  often  a  greater  difference  in  wages  than  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  England.  From  the 
census  of  1880,  taking  the  total  amount  paid  for 
wages  in  the  manufacturing  industries,  and  dividing 
it  by  the  number  engaged  in  those  industries  we  find 
that  the  annual  average  wage  earners  in  the  State  of 
Maine  in  her  manufacturing  industries  was  $260, 
while  in  Massachusetts  it  was  $364  ;  in  Connecticut, 
$385  ;  in  California,  $483  ;  in  Oregon,  $501.  .But  in 
Georgia-4t  was  $211;  in  North  Carolina,  $155  ;  in 
Tennessee,  $234  ;  in  Pennsylvania,  $349. 

But  if  one  asks,  are  not  wages  higher  here  than  in 
England  ?  Yes,  measured  in  dollars,  wages  are  higher; 
but  measured  in  work  they  are  not  higher.  The 
reason  labor  is  paid  more  in  the  United  States  is  be- 
cause it  earns  more.  Not  a  single  dollar  is  paid  to 
our  labor,  in  comparison  with  the  labor  of  any  other 
country,  that  is  not  fully  earned  by  the  work  it  does. 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        183 

It  is  the  high  priced  labor  that  is  the  cheapest  for 
the  manufacturer.  High  wages  are  paid  to  the  man 
who  earns  high  wages  by  the  greater  efficiency  of  his 
work.  It  is  the  "pauper"  labor  of  Europe  and  of 
India  which  costs  the  manufacturer  the  most,  which 
increases  the  price  of  his  goods.  And  the  reason 
why  a  reduction  of  protective  duties  will  not  hurt  the 
American  workingman  is  because  his  work  is  so  much 
more  efficient  than  the  European  "pauper  laborer's," 
that  it  is  actually  cheaper  to  the  manufacturers  to 
employ  him.  But  the  Republicans  insist  that  labor 
here,  as  compared  with  labor  abroad,  is  paid  more 
than  it  earns  by  its  work.  Let  us  see  what  the  facts 
are. 

I  will  take  the  cotton  industry.  In  his  report  made 
to  the  State  Department  in  August,  1886,  after  a  very 
careful  examination,  Consul  Schoenhof  made  a  com- 
parison of  the  cost  of  labor  in  manufacturing  certain 
yarns  at  Fall  River,  and  in  Lancashire,  England,  and 
he  found  that  the  labor  cost  in  making  their  yarn  No. 
1 8,  was  in  Lancashire  52  cents,  and  in  Massachusetts 
only  40  cents ;  No.  20  was  in  Lancashire  50  cents, 
and  in  Massachusetts  45  cents ;  No.  28  was  in  Lan- 
cashire 6 1  cents,  and  in  Massachusetts  64  cents.  He 
reports  that  a  weaver  in  America  tends  from  six  to 
eight  looms,  in  England  from  three  to  four ;  that  the 
number  of  yards  a  weaver  turns  out  in  America  is 
1,350,  and  in  England  857;  that  the  number  of  yards 
of  woolen  dress-goods  a  weaver  turns  out  in  America 
is  300.  and  in  England  105,  and  of  cheviot  cloth  in 


184   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

America  120,  and  in  England  80.  The  same  fact  is 
true  in  other  industries,  for  example,  carpets  and 
boots  and  shoes  ;  invariably  our  employees  do  more 
work,  and  so  get  more  wages. 

Mr.  Elaine,  in  1881,  in  his  report  as  Secretary  of 
State,  said,  "The  hours  of  labor  in  the  Lancashire 
mills  are  56,  and  in  the  Massachusetts  60  per  week. 
The  hours  of  labor  in  the  mills  in  the  other  New 
England  States,  where  the  wages  are  generally  less 
than  in  Massachusetts,  are  usually  66  to  69  per  week. 
Undoubtedly  the  inequalities  in  wages  in  English 
and  American  operatives  (that  is,  in  cotton  manu- 
factures) are  more  than  equalized  by  the  greater 
efficiency  of  the  latter,  and  their  longer  hours  ot 
labor.  If  this  should  prove  to  be  a  fact  in  practice, 
as  it  seems  to  me  to  be  proven  by  official  statistics, 
it  would  be  a  very  important  element  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  our  ability  to  compete  with  England  for 
our  share  of  the  cotton  goods  trade  of  the  world." 

Mr.  Evarts,  in  an  official  report  as  Secretary  of 
State,  made  May  17,  1878,  said: 

"  The  average  American  workman  performs  from 
one  and  a  half  to  twice  as  much  work  in  a  given  time 
as  the  average  European  workman."  "  This  is  so  im- 
portant a  point  in  connection  with  our  ability  to  com- 
pete with  the  cheap  labor  manufacturers  of  Europe," 
he  adds,  that  he  gives  numerous  consular  reports  in 
support  thereof. 

That  is  the  reason  why  we  are  able  to  send  abroad 
and  sell  in  competition  with  the  whole  world  many 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        185 

articles  in  which  labor  is  the  principal  item  of  cost, 
and  the  raw  material  is  the  least ;  such  articles  as 
hardware  goods,  cutlery,  machinery,  watches  and 
furniture.  We  never  could  do  it  for  a  minute  if  it 
was  not  that  our  labor  is  more  efficient  than  the  for- 
eign labor  and,  though  paid  more  in  dollars,  earns 
every  cent  that  is  paid  to  it. 

We  pay  higher  wages  because  our  men  earn  more. 
This  statement  is  confirmed  by  Republican  author- 
ity. Mr.  Charles  S.  Hill,  the  statistician  of  the  State 
Department,  in  his  argument  before  the  tariff  com- 
mission, pointed  out  the  fact  that  our  manufactured 
product  in  1882  was  $8,000,000,000,  made  by  5,250,- 
ooo  hands,  and  that  for  the  same  time  the  product  of 
England  was  $4,000,000,000,  made  by  5,140,200 
hands;  and  then  he  says:  "  Here  is  the  positive 
proof  that  American  mechanics,  in  the  aggregate, 
accomplish  exactly  double  the  result  of  the  same 
number  of  British  mechanics.  They  are,  therefore, 
very  justly  paid  double  in  wages." 

The  Republicans  say  that  these  high  tariff  taxes 
are  needed  to  equalize  the  difference  between  the 
wages  paid  here  and  those  paid  in  Europe,  to  protect 
Americans  against  pauper  labor.  I  have  shown  that 
the  American  workingmen  are  already  protected 
against  pauper  labor,  because  they  are  more  capable, 
and  higher  wages  are  paid  them  on  that  very  account. 
But  even  if  the  Republican  argument  were  true,  let 
us  see  how  high  a  tariff  tax  would  be  necessary  to 
pay  the  whole  of  the  wages  in  our  great  industries. 


186   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

In  a  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  made  Janu- 
ary 25,  1888,  it  is  stated  that  the  wages  paid  in  the 
cotton  industry  are  a  little  over  21  per  cent,  of  the 
cost  of  the  product,  and  that  the  protective  tariff  is 
over  40  per  cent,  or  more  than  double  the  whole 
labor  cost  in  that  industry.  So,  in  iron  and  steel 
manufactures,  the  labor  cost  is  a  little  over  18  per 
cent.,  and  the  tariff  tax  has  been  more  than  40  per 
cent.  In  silk  goods,  the  labor  cost  is  a  little  over  22 
per  cent.,  and  the  tariff  tax  has  been  over  50  per  cent. 
In  woolen  goods  the  labor  cost  is  about  17  per  cent, 
and  the  tariff  tax  has  been  over  60  per  cent. 

The  average  cost  of  turning  out  pig  iron  at  eleven 
American  furnaces  is  given  in  this  report  as  $13.10  a 
ton ;  in  eleven  European  establishments  the  cost  is 
$10.74,  or  a  difference  of  $2.36,  and  this  $2.36  is  the 
basis  for  all  the  protectionist  talk  about  the  small 
labor  cost  in  the  production  of  European  iron.  To 
cover  that  slight  difference  —  less  than  the  freight 
rates  from  Liverpool  to  New  York  —  protectionist 
law-makers  imposed  a  duty  of  $6.72  a  ton  on  foreign 
pig  iron. 

There  was  a  duty  of  75  cents  per  ton  on  coal,  yet 
the  entire  cost  of  mining  is  less  than  this  duty,  being 
from  25  to  60  cents  per  ton.  What  becomes,  then,  of 
the  Republican  claim  that  these  protective  duties  are 
put  on  solely  for  the  benefit  of  the  laborer,  to  make 
good  the  difference  between  the  wages  paid  him  here 
and  those  paid  his  foreign  competitor? 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        187 

The  laborer  must  see  that  there  is  an  enormous 
amount  of  protection  here  of  which  he  does  not  get 
the  benefit.  How  then  can  it  injure  the  workingman 
to  reduce  or  take  off  these  duties?  When  his  em- 
ployer says  to  him,  lt  If  you  reduce  the  tariff,  then 
your  wages  will  be  reduced."  Ask  him  how  he 
proves  that  protection,  i.  e.,  the  keeping  on  of  the 
tariff,  has  increased  his  wages,  and  see  if  he  can 
answer  the  facts  given  above. 

What,  then,  does  determine  wages  ?  Demand 
and  supply  and  the  efficiency  of  labor.  If  one 
laborer  can  produce  more  per  day  than  another  in 
another  land,  other  things  being  equal,  he  will  get 
higher  wages.  If  there  is  a  greater  demand  for 
laborers  than  the  number  of  laborers  competent  to 
perform  the  work,  his  wages  will  be  higher  than  when 
the  number  exceeds  the  demand. 

Wages,  therefore,  are  high  in  this  country,  not 
because  of  protection,  but  in  spite  of  it.  They  are 
high  because  wages  are  always  higher  in  a  thinly 
settled  country  where  there  is  plenty  of  land  and 
constant  demand  for  labor  and  constant  development 
of  industry,  than  in  an  old,  densely  populated  country. 

PROTECTION  AND  THE  HOME  MARKET  THEORY. 

The  protectionist's  final  argument  is  that  of  the 
"home  market"  Protection,  he  says,  builds  up 
new  industries  in  this  country,  develops  new  trades, 
gives  employment  to  new  men,  stops  our  purchases 


1 88   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

abroad  and  compels  Americans  to  buy  their  goods 
in  their  own  country. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  protection  may  diversify 
industries.  There  is  no  doubt  that  with  a  sufficiently 
high  tariff  almost  any  industry  can  be  built  up  here. 
Shut  out  the  foreigner,  increase  the  price  of  an 
article  so  that  the  producer  may  make  a  large 
enough  profit,  and  you  may  build  up  a  tea  industry 
here  which  will  employ  men  and  give  profit  to  capi- 
talists. But  at  what  cost  ?  The  question  to  be 
answered  by  those  who  have  to  buy  the  goods  of 
that.industry  established  by  virtue  of  a  protective  duty 
is,  is  it  worth  while  ?  Ought  a  whole  nation  to  be 
taxed  'and  compelled  to  pay  a  higher  price  for  an 
article  simply  to  build  up  one  special  business? 

Take  the  tin  plate  industry  as  an  example.  In 
1890  we  imported  $21,000,000  worth  of  tin  plate  on 
which  the  duty  was  $7,000,000.  McKinley  said : 
"  Increase  the  duty  to  $16,000,000  and  we  will  estab- 
lish a  tin  plate  industry  in  this  country  giving  em- 
ployment to  24,000  men.  By  thus  producing  our  tin 
plate  at  home,  we  will  save  $21,000,000  which  we 
now  send  abroad."  On  the  contrary,  the  loss  of 
wealth  is  all  the  other  way.  When  we  buy  tin  plate 
abroad  we  pay  for  it  by  means  of  goods  which  we 
raise  or  manufacture.  If  we  cease  to  import  we  cease 
to  export  at  the  same  time,  and  a  home  market 
rigidly  enforced  would  mean  distress  and  destruction, 
because  it  would  throw  all  our  surplus  crops  and 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC   STANDPOINT.       189 

manufacture,   which  we  now  sell  abroad,  upon  our 
own  already  fully  supplied  markets. 

Now  these  24,000  whom  McKinley  was  going  to 
employ  in  the  home  tin  plate  industry,  if  unrestricted, 
would  go  into  other  business.  If  they  can  produce  tin 
plates  at  a  cost  of  $37,000,000  ($21,000,000  cost,  plus 
$16,000,000  duty),  they  can  produce  $3 7,000,000. of 
wheat  or  of  some  manufactured  goods  which  we  can 
make  more  advantageously,  If  they  export  this  and 
sell  it  they  can  then  go  abroad,  buy  tin  plate  for 
$21,000,000,  bring  it  to  New  York,  and  if  there  is  no 
duty,  have  $16,000,000  of  gold  exchanges  left  to 
expend  for  additional  products  of  domestic  manufac- 
ture. Instead  of  benefiting  the  country,  then,  by 
building  up  a  new  industry,  the  protectionist,  by 
imposing  a  tax  on  tin  plate,  will  have  destroyed  a 
yearly  profit  on  trade  of  $16,000,000,  and  will  have 
reduced  the  output  and  prevented  the  encouragement 
of  other  industries  in  which  we  have  an  advantage 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

The  Democratic  party  says  that  the  Republican 
argument  for  a  high  tariff  built  on  the  home  market 
theory  is  that  men  are  induced  to  embark  in  indus- 
tries which  they  could  not  maintain  in  equal  competi- 
tion with  the  rest  of  the  world  without  such  protec- 
tion. But  since  there  are  many  other  trades  and  in- 
dustries in  which  they  can  defy  competition,  the  adop- 
tion of  a  protective  policy  operates  to  divert  capital 


190   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

from  fields  where  it  is  most  productive  to  fields  where 
it  is  less  productive.  It  therefore  seems  to  be  a 
sounder  policy  to  encourage  production  where  the 
natural  conditions  of  this  country  will  permit  it  and 
to  allow  people  to  produce  freely  that  which  they  can 
produce  cheapest  and  best. 

To  sum  up,  we  maintain  that  a  McKinley  high 
tariff  discourages  trade,  raises  the  cost  of  our  pro- 
ducts, taxes  their  material,  limits  the  demand,  and 
fosters  trusts.  It  substitutes  enormous  profits  in  a 
limited  market  for  a  legitimate  and  healthy  growth. 
It  causes  over-production,  but  furnishes  no  outlet  for 
it.  It  burdens  the  people  through  abuse  of  the  power 
of  taxation,  and  makes  the  basis  of  law  privileges  in- 
stead of  rights,  and  its  controlling  influences  selfish 
interests  instead  of  justice,  equality,  and  the  public 
welfare. 

We  maintain  that  there  is  no  general  interest  either 
of  consumer,  wage-earner,  or  manufacturer,  that  will 
not  be  benefited  by  a  reduction  of  taxation. 

But  the  issue  of  tax  reduction  is  a  principle  broader 
than  any  principle  of  taxation;  it  is  the  principle  of 
equality  under  the  law. 

The  one  great  evil  in  public  life  to-day  is  the  self- 
ish, grasping  influence  of  wealth,  that,  seizing  politi- 
cal power,  uses  it  for  its  own  purposes,  that  asserts 
the  right  to  tax  the  whole  people  for  its  benefit,  that 
creates  a  high  tariff  under  which  greedy  trusts  prey 
upon  the  people's  pockets,  that  turns  the  people's  law 
against  the  people's  interests. 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT.        19! 

-Because  this  reform  means  something  more  than 
any  question  of  revenue  or  taxation,  because  it  in- 
volves the  fundamental  principles  of  sound  demo- 
cratic government,  and  seeks  to  limit  the  power  of 
government  to  public  and  to  proper  purposes,  it  is 
the  most  important  question  of  the  day  —  it  is  the 
people's  cause.  Its  final  triumph  is  death  to  the  con- 
trol by  organized  wealth  of  elections  and  legislation, 
a  restoration  of  political  power  to  the  people,  and  a 
guarantee  that  the  people's  law  shall  be  used  only 
for  the  people's  interests. 

To  the  man  or  party  accomplishing  this  great  work 
may  well  be  applied  those  memorable  words  uttered 
by  Sir.  Robert  Peel,  in  closing  the  debate  on  the 
repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws:  "  I  shall  leave  a  name  exe- 
crated by  every  monopolist  who  clamors  for  protection, 
because  it  conduces  to  his  own  individual  benefit ; 
but  it  may  be  that  I  shall  leave  a  name  sometimes 
remembered  with  expressions  of  good-will,  in  the 
abodes  of  those  whose  lot  it  is  to  labor  and  to  earn 
their  bread  by  the  sweat  of  their  brow,  when  they 
shall  recruit  their  exhausted  strength  with  abundant 
and  untaxed  food,  the  sweeter  because  it  is  no  longer 
leavened  with  a  measure  of  injustice." 


THE  TARIFF  QUESTION  FROM  A  REPUB- 
LICAN STANDPOINT. 


BY  WM.  McKINLEY, 

GOVERNOR    OF   OHIO. 


IT  takes  more  than  a  million  dollars  each  day  to 
run  the  United  States  government.  This  vast 
sum  must  be  raised  by  taxation  in  some  form,  and  it 
is  generally  agreed  that  the  expenses  of  running  the 
government  must  for  the  most  part  be  raised  by  a 
tariff.  There  are  two  kinds  of  tariffs  —  revenue  and 
protective.  In  America  a  revenue  tariff  is  synony- 
mous with  free  trade.  It  is  difficult  to  distinguish 
between  them,  and  for  all  practical  purposes  they  are 
the  same. 

The  advocates  of  a  revenue  tariff  insist  that  duties 
shall  be  levied  upon  foreign  products  which,  for  the 
most  part,  are  not  produced  in  the  United  States, 
the  principle  being  that  revenue  should  be  the  sole 
object  of  tariff  taxation.  This  theory  is  borrowed 
from  England.  Large  revenues  can  be  secured  by 
levying  duties  upon  those  foreign  products  that  have 
little  or  no  home  competition.  A  revenue  tariff  does 
nothing  but  produce  revenue,  and  cares  only  for 


Engraved  for  1'ractical  Book  for  Practical  PtopU. 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT.        193 

revenue.  It  does  not  encourage  any  domestic  enter- 
prise, new  or  old.  To  speak  of  a  "  tariff -for-re venue- 
only,  with  incidental  protection,"  is  a  contradiction 
not  only  of  terms,  but  principles.  A  low  tariff  upon 
a  foreign  product,  which  competes  with  a  home  pro- 
duct, would  to  a  small  degree  favor  the  domestic 
industry,  but  when  it  does  that  it  ceases  to  be  a 
tariff-for-revenue-only,  because  it  gives  some  protec- 
tion to  the  domestic  producer.  According  to  the 
free  trade  maxim,  "where  protection  begins,  there 
revenue  ends,"  and  the  question  of  revenue  to  reve- 
nue reformers  is  all-controlling.  The  lower  the  tariff 
the  larger  must  be  the  importations  to  raise  a  given 
amount  of  revenue.  A  revenue  tariff  upon  compet- 
ing products  can  therefore  have  but  one  effect — that 
of  opening  our  markets  to  the  foreign  producer,  im- 
poverishing the  home  producer  and  enriching  his 
foreign  rival. 

If  the  effect  of  any  tariff  is  to  induce  large  im- 
portations of  articles  that  otherwise  would  have  been 
produced  at  home,  then  such  a  tariff  must  neces- 
sarily benefit  the  foreign  producer  and  injure  the 
American  producer.  It  is  inevitable  that  the  greater 
the  importation  of  a  competing  article  the  less  will 
be  the  home  production  of  that  article. 

A  tariff-for-revenue-only,  or  free  trade,  admits  the 
foreigner  to  our  markets  on  equal  privileges  with  the 
citizen  of  our  own  country,  although  the  former  rep- 
resents cheap  and  often  degraded  labor,  whilst  the 
latter  represents  the  best  paid  and  most  intelligent 
13 


IQ4   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

labor  in  the  world.  In  other  words,  that  policy  gives 
our  business,  our  work,  our  money,  our  manufactures, 
our  markets,  to  other  nations,  to  the  manifest  injury 
of  our  own  people. 

The  consumer  always  pays  a  revenue  tariff.  He 
pays  the  original  selling  price  of  the  article  with  the 
tariff  added  to  it.  This  is  true,  because  there  is  little 
or  no  home  product  to  compete  with  the  foreign 
product  and  influence  its  price.  The  foreigner  con- 
trols the  market  and  can  therefore  dictate  his  own 
price. 

The  contention  between  these  tariff  polices,  the 
American  system  of  protection  to  home  industry,  as 
contrasted  with  the  English  policy  of  free  trade,  was 
commenced  at  the  very  beginning  of  our  existence 
as  a  Nation.  But  it  is  with  the  controversy  as  it  has 
been  waged  since  the  close  of  the  war  of  the  Rebel- 
lion that  we  are  more  directly  concerned.  Since 
then  four  general  tariff  measures  have  been  proposed 
in  Congress  by  the  advocates  of  free  trade,  all  of 
which,  however,  were  as  unlike  as  the  American  tar- 
iff was  unlike  the  English  tariff,  but  all  held  to  the 
idea  that  a  revenue  tariff  should  be  the  controlling 
policy  of  this  government.  As  time  elapsed  the  ad- 
vocates of  this  idea  grew  bolder  and  bolder,  until 
instead  of  some  degree  of  protection  to  our  wage- 
earners  being  admitted  as  indispensable  to  our  pros- 
perity, all  such  protection  was  denounced  as  lt  fraudu- 
lent "  and  " unconstitutional"  and  "  the  culminating 
atrocity  of  class  legislation." 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT.        195 

In  the  Forty-seventh  Congress,  Hon.  Abram  S. 
Hewitt,  of  New-  York,  an  eminent  member  of  the 
Democratic  party,  then  in  control  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  admitted  that  there  were  branches 
of  American  industry  which  could  not  be  carried  on, 
at  our  scale  of  wages,  in  competition  with  the  wages 
paid  abroad,  without  equivalent  compensation  in  the 
form  of  protective  duties,  or  of  a  bounty  from  the 
public  treasury.  He  put  the  difference  of  wages  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  as  being  fifty 
per  cent,  higher  here  than  there.  In  a  letter  to  Jay 
Gould,  in  1870,  Mr.  Hewitt  observed:  "  Free  trade 
will  simply  reduce  the  wages  of  our  labor  to  the  for- 
eign standard."  He  subsequently  explained  that  he 
applied  this  declaration  merely  to  protected  indus- 
tries, but  his  explanation  did  not  destroy  the  force  of 
his  remark;  indeed,  it  only  vindicated  what  was  then 
and  is  still  the  claim  of  the  protectionists. 

It  is  much  more  difficult  for  labor  to  secure  an  in- 
crease of  wages  than  it  is  to  prevent  a  decrease. 
The  immediate  effect  of  a  decrease  of  duties  on  a 
competing  foreign  product  is  to  increase  the  impor- 
tation of  that  foreign  product,  and  to  that  extent 
supplant  the  domestic  product.  It  is  axiomatic  that 
with  no  work,  comes  no  wages.  To  a  proportionate 
degree  it  holds  ofood  that  with  little  work  comes  less 

*j  o 

and  lower  wages.  We  have  the  lamp  of  experience 
to  guide  our  steps  in  such  legislation.  It  is  the  truth 
of  history  that  the  periods  in  our  National  career  in 
which  a  revenue  tariff  has  been  the  economic  policy 


196   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

of  the  Government  have  been  the  periods  of  the 
greatest  financial  revulsions,  and  industrial  decadence, 
want  and  poverty.  From  1833  to  1842,  a  low  tariff 
period,  business  was  at  a  stand-still ;  our  merchants 
and  traders  were  bankrupt ;  our  industries  were  para- 
lyzed ;  our  labor  was  idle,  and  our  capital  was  unem- 
ployed. Foreign  products  crowded  the  American 
market ;  home  competition  was  destroyed  and  the 
prices  of  household  necessities  were  raised. 

Again  from  1847  to  1861,  another  period  in  which 
a  tariff-for-revenue-only  prevailed,  business  was  uni- 
versally depressed,  and  the  people  at  large  were  most 
disastrously  affected  in  all  their  resources  and  finan- 
cial operations. 

It  is  sometimes  claimed  by  a  partisan  press  and 
the  advocates  of  free  trade,  that  this  country  enjoyed 
great  and  exceptional  prosperity  from  1850  to  1860. 
But  this  claim  is  easily  proven  false  and  misleading. 
It  is  only  true  that  there  could  hardly  have  been  a 
more  favorable  period  in  which  to  attempt  the  fool- 
hardy experiment  of  free  trade  with  foreign  nations; 
but  as  to  the  disastrous  effects  of  the  free  trade 
policy,  even  then  there  can  be  no  contention.  Let 
us  recite  the  plain  historical  facts  :  The  so-called 
Walker  revenue  tariff  law  went  into  effect  about  the 
time  of  the  breaking  out  of  the  Mexican  war,  on  ac- 
count of  which  the  United  States  government  dis- 
bursed among  our  people  more  than  $100,000,000. 
Then  the  famine  in  Ireland  took  every  surplus  pro- 
duct of  American  agriculture.  Next  came  the  dis- 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT.        197 

covery  of  gold  in  California,  and  then  the  Revolution 
of  1 848.  Then  there  was  the  great  Crimean  war  in 
which  France,  England  and  Russia  were  engaged, 
and  which  for  two  and  one-half  years  paralyzed  their 
industries  and  made  an  unparalleled  demand  for  the 
products  of  American  farms  and  factories.  Yet,  with 
all  these  helps,  phenomenal  as  they  were,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  1857,  and  even  before,  and  thence 
on  to  the  repeal  of  the  Walker  law,  our  country,  its 
business,  its  occupations,  its  finances  and  its  credits, 
was  in  a  most  deplorable  condition. 

The  revenue  tariff  law  of  1846  did  much  to 
produce  the  great  panic  of  1857,  recollections  of 
which  are  still  vivid  in  the  minds  of  thousands  of  its 
victims.  The  pecuniary  distress  was  so  great,  and 
the  need  of  relief  so  apparent,  that  President  Bu- 
chanan felt  constrained  to  appeal  to  Congress  to  do 
all  in  its  power  "  to  increase  the  confidence  of  the 
manufacturing  interests  and  give  a  fresh  impulse  to 
business."  His  picture  of  the  condition  of  the  times 
may  well  be  recalled  in  this  connection.  He  said 
that  "  in  the  midst  of  unsurpassed  plenty  in  all  the 
productions  and  elements  of  national  wealth,  we  find 
our  manufactures  suspended,  our  public  works  re- 
tarded, our  private  enterprises  of  different  kinds 
abandoned,  and  thousands  of  useful  laborers  thrown 
out  of  employment  and  reduced  to  want."  Then 
came  the  admission,  which  must  inevitably  be  made 
whenever  the  tariff  for  revenue  policy  is  adopted, 
that  "  the  same  causes  which  have  produced  pecu- 


198   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

niary  distress  throughout  the  country  have  so  re- 
duced the  amount  of  imports  from  foreign  countries 
that  the  revenue  has  proved  inadequate  to  meet  the 
necessary  expenses  of  the  government. 

With  these  plain  facts  of  history  in  mind,  let  us 
consider  the  object  and  effects  of  the  protective  tariff 
policy,  which  was  so  happily  christened  by  Henry 
Clay,  many  years  ago,  as  "the  American  system." 

A  protective  tariff  is  a  tariff  imposed  upon  a 
foreign  product  with  the  object  of  raising  revenue, 
and  also  of  encouraging  the  domestic  manufacture 
of  a  like  product,  and  of  protecting  the  home  work- 
man from  the  competition  of  the  lower-paid  foreign 
workman.  The  tariff  should  equal  in  amount  the 
difference  between  the  wages  paid  abroad  and  the 
wages  paid  at  home.  In  the  case  of  a  proposed  new 
industry  to  be  encouraged  by  protection  —  such,  for 
example,  as  that  of  tin-plate  making  under  the  law 
of  1890  —  the  tariff  should  be  high  enough  to  permit 
the  payment  of  the  American  scale  of  wages,  so  that 
the  home  and  the  foreign  product  can  meet  in  com- 
petition in  this  market  upon  equal  terms. 

Protection  is,  as  Burke  said  of  liberty,  for  "  all  or 
for  none,  and  only  perfect  when  universal."  It  must 
apply  to  all  interests  requiring  the  fostering  care  and 
encouragement  of  the  government.  It  must  be  for 
the  benefit  of  all  classes,  and  all  portions  of  our 
country.  It  must  be  for  all  within  the  principle,  or 
none.  It  is  the  true  National  policy  and  should  be 
as  non-partisan  as  it  is  non-sectional.  It  deserves  to 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT.        199 

be  as  firmly  supported  by  one  party  as  another,  be- 
cause it  sustains  "  the  American  system,"  founded 
without  controversy  by  our  forefathers,  and  main- 
tained by  them  without  party  division  for  the  first 
twenty-five  years  of  our  national  existence. 

The  protective  policy  is  more  than  an  expedient,  it 
is  a  system,  a  principle  of  government.  The  question 
of  schedules  is  a  matter  of  detail.  Schedules  may  and 
should  vary  at  different  times  and  yet  the  protective 
principle  remain  constant  and  intact.  When  it  is 
found  by  experience  that  the  tariff  on  a  certain  arti- 
"cle  is  more  than  enough  to  make  up  the  difference 
between  the  wages  paid  abroad  and  the  wages  paid 
in  the  United  States,  then  there  can  and  should  be  a 
reduction  of  the  tariff  without  doing  any  violence  to 
the  protective  principle  ;  but  when  experience  dem- 
onstrates the  wisdom  of  a  revision  of  the  tariff,  that 
revision  should  be  made  by  the  friends  and  not  by 
the  enemies  of  the  protective  system. 

The  protective  tariff  does  more  than  raise  revenue. 
The  revenue  tariff  does  nothing  else,  aims  at  nothing 
else.  The  protective  policy  permits  foreign  non-com- 
peting products,  except  luxuries,  to  come  into  our 
markets  free,  but  imposes  duties  upon  those  foreign 
products  which  we  produce  at  home  or  propose  to 
produce  at  home,  which  duties,  while  raising  reve- 
nue, discriminate  in  favor  of  the  domestic  producer. 

We  put  a  tariff  upon  foreign  products  for  the 
double  purpose  of  raising  revenue  to  pay  the  run- 
ning expenses  of  our  government  and  of  protecting 


2OO   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

our  people  against  the  destructive  effects  of  foreign 
competition.  In  doing  this  we  are  guilty  of  no  wrong 
to  the  foreign  producer.  We  have  the  right  to  dis- 
criminate in  favor  of  our  own  people,  and  it  is  our 
duty  to  do  so.  Our  government  is  supported  by  and 
for  our  people,  not  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  are 
not  subject  to  its  laws,  or  who  do  not  contribute  to 
its  support.  Every  country  must  legislate  for  itself, 
according  to  its  own  peculiar  conditions,  geographi- 
cal, political  and  social.  It  is  the  right,  province  and 
duty  of  every  nation  to  look  to  its  own  interests.  In 
adopting  the  principle  of  protection,  the  American 
people  are  simply  caring  for  themselves.  Self-pro- 
tection is  not  confined  to  individuals  or  families.  It 
applies  as  well  to  nations  —  for  what  is  a  nation  but 
an  aggregation  of  individuals  and  families  ?  As  a 
rule,  the  nation  that  does  the  best  by  its  own  citizens, 
does  the  best  for  humanity  in  general.  Within  the 
jurisdiction  of  its  flag  every  country  has  the  supreme 
and  exclusive  control  of  its  own  fiscal  affairs.  What 
shall  be  said  of  that  statesmanship  which  closes  our 
own  factories  and  leaves  idle  our  own  citizens  to 
kindle  the  fires  of  the  factories  and  enrich  the  manu- 
facturers of  foreign  countries  ? 

The  protective  system  is  the  true  American  system. 
It  is  the  system  of  the  fathers.  A  great  majority  of 
the  great  names  in  American  history  are  found- upon 
the  roll  of  those  favoring  protection.  The  doctrine 
was  recognized  as  our  National  policy  in  the  second 
act  passed  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States.  It 


THE  TARIFF   FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT.       2OI 

was,  indeed,  the  first  great  legislative  declaration 
under  the  Federal  constitution,  the  only  law  preced- 
ing it  berno-  one  fixing  the  oath  of  office  of  certain 

o  o  o 

Federal  officials.  Washington  approved  that  act. 
Its  author  was  James  Madison,  of  Virginia,  "the 
Father  of  the  Constitution, "and the  majority  of  men 
voting  for  it  had  assisted  in  framing  or  adopting  that 
constitution.  Hamilton,  Adams,  Jefferson,  Monroe, 
Jackson,  Clay,  Webster,  the  younger  Adams,  Fill- 
more,  Lincoln,  Grant,  Hayes,  Garfield,  Arthur,  Elaine, 
and  Harrison  were  all  on  the  side  of  protection. 
Even  Calhoun  was  a  protectionist  until  he  made  the 
discovery  that  protection  was  inimical  to  slave  labor, 
and  that,  under  the  beneficent  sway  of  protection, 
strong,  prosperous  and  freedom-loving  communities 
had  grown  up  in  the  North,  a  standing  menace  to 
the  institution  of  slavery. 

The  discussion  of  the  antagonistic  tariff  policies 
leads  us  naturally  to  consider,  in  view  of  the  match- 
less progress  we  have  made  under  protective  tariff 
laws,  the  objections  that  are  urged  against  a  system 
that  has  brought  us  such  unparalleled  prosperity. 
What  reasons  can  any  American  urge  for  the  aban- 
donment of  so  wise  and  beneficent  a  system  ?  They 
are  invariably  insincere  and  futile. 

It  is  sometimes  claimed  that  protection  destroys 
competition  and  seeks  to  monopolize  the  home  market 
for  our  manufactures,  regardless  of  the  best  interests 
of  the  masses.  Far  from  this  being  true,  the  pro- 
tectionist expects  and  invites  the  fullest  and  freest 


2O2   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

competition  in  all  the  lines  of  domestic  manufacture 
and  avenues  of  business.  He  encourages  the  theory 
that  "competition  is  the  life  of  trade,"  and  points 
triumphantly  to  the  fact  that  home  competition  always 
brings  prices  to  a  fair  and  reasonable  level.  Success, 
or  even  apparent  or  prospective  success,  in  any  busi- 
ness or  enterprise,  will  incite  others  to  engage  in  like 
business  or  enterprise;  then  follows  healthful  com- 
petition, and  that  inevitably  results  in  cheapening  the 
articles  produced. 

The  protective  policy  is  not  only  better  for  the 
American  mechanic ;  it  is  better  for  the  American 
farmer.  What  the  farmer  wants  is  not  more  farmers, 
but  more  consumers.  If  the  American  market  is 
glutted  with  foreign  products,  there  is  that  much  less 
work  for  American  operatives ;  and  when  the  Ameri- 
can operative  is  not  employed,  he  can  not  consume 
the  products  of  American  farms.  Without  work  at 
his  own  calling,  the  American  operative  must,  as  a 
last  resort,  go  to  the  land.  Then  the  American 
farmer  has  to  face  competitors  who  have  hitherto 
been  consumers. 

Agriculture  is  prosperous  only  when  there  is  an 
active  demand  for  the  products  of  the  farm.  The 
home  market  is  much  better  for  the  American  farmer 
than  the  foreign  market.  This  is  so  self-evident 
that,  despite  the  outcry  of  the  free  traders  about  "the 
markets  of  the  world,"  it  seems  unnecessary  to  pre- 
sent arguments  to  sustain  the  assertion.  The  home 
market  is  steadier,  more  reliable  and  more  profitable 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT.       203 

than  the  foreign  market  Without  the  home  market 
there  is  no  demand  for  the  products  of  the  truck 
farm.  The  home  market  creates  a  demand  for  fruits 
and  vegetables  that  will  not  bear  exportation.  Prior 
to  the  enactment  of  the  tariff  law  of  1894  the  work- 
ingmen  in  the  American  shops  consumed  annually 
more  than  ninety  dollars'  worth  of  the  agricultural 
products  of  the  American  farmer,  as  compared  with 
the  less  than  five  dollars'  worth  of  his  products  that 
were  consumed  by  the  foreign  workingmen.  The 
American  consumer,  therefore,  is  eighteen  times  a 
better  customer  to  the  American  farmer  than  the 
foreign  consumer ;  and  the  American  market  is  rela- 
tively eighteen  times  a  better  market  for  the  Ameri- 
can farmer  than  the  foreign  market  is.  This  delusion 
about  the  great  advantages  that  would  accrue  to  the 
American  people  *'  if  we  would  only  go  out  and  pos- 
sess the  markets  of  the  world "  has  been  aptly 
described  as  "  a  great  free  trade  shadow  dance."  The 
more  our  people  think  and  know  of  this  question 
the  less  attractive  the  world's  markets  become  and 
the  more  substantial  the  home  market  grows. 

The  American  farmer  is  subject  to  a  continuously 
increasing  competition  for  the  foreign  market.  The 
American  farmer  must  not  only  compete  with  the 
broad  and  fertile  fields  of  the  Canadian  Northwest, 
but  with  immense  tracts  of  productive  lands  in 
Russia,  India  and  Asia,  and  almost  equally  vast 
areas  in  Africa  and  Australia,  in  all  of  which  the' 
products  of  the  farm,  not  only  cereals  but  livestock, 


2O4   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

can  be  raised  cheaper  than  in  the  United  States, 
because  in  all  of  these  countries  land  and  labor  are 
cheaper,  and  in  some  of  them  there  are  equal 
climatic  advantages.  A  quarter  of  a  century  ago 
this  competition  was  only  a  matter  of  speculation. 
Now  it  is  a  factor  of  constantly  increasing  import- 
ance in  American  labor  problems  and  civilization. 

Those  who  talk  about  the  foreign  market  as  a 
commercial  prize,  in  comparison  with  which  the  home 
market  is  a  small  thing,  apparently  do  not  realize 
or  properly  appreciate  the  fact  that  the  internal  com- 
merce of  the  United  States  is  greater  than  the 
foreign  commerce  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Ger- 
many, Russia,  Holland,  Belgium  and  Austro-Hun- 
gary  combined.  One  of  our  great  American  railroads 
carries  more  freight  in  a  single  year  than  all  the 
merchant  ships  of  Great  Britain  together  carry.  We 
have  more  miles  of  railroad  than  all  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa  and  Australasia  combined.  The  floating  ton- 
nage of  the  United  States,  engaged  in  coastwise 
commerce,  and  on  our  lakes  and  rivers,  is  very  far  in 
excess  of  that  of  any  other  nation.  One  or  two  com- 
parisons will  convey  some  idea  of  this  stupendous 
commerce.  The  tonnage  which  passed  through  the 
Detroit  river  alone  during  the  234  days  of  navigation 
in  1889  exceeded  by  2,463,127  tons  the  entire  British 
and  foreign  tonnage  which  entered  and  closed  at 
London  and  Liverpool  that  year  in  the  foreign  and 
coastwise  trade.  The  freight  which  passed  through 
the  St  Mary's  Falls  canal  during  the  season  of  about 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT.       20$ 

230  days  in  1890  exceeded  by  2,257,876  tons  the 
entire  tonnage  of  all  nations  which  passed  through 
the  Suez  canal  during  the  265  days  of  the  season  of 
1889.  The  freight  carried  on  the  railroads  of  the 
United  States  in  1890  exceeded  by  over  36,000,000 
tons  the  aggregate  carried  on  all  the  railroads  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  Germany,  France  and  Russia  in 
1889.  Commodities  are  interchanged  among  our  own 
people  with  greater  facility  and  at  cheaper  rates,  dis- 
tance considered,  than  in  any  other  country  on  earth. 

The  increase  of  national  wealth  and  prosperity, 
largely  due  to  our  system  of  protection  to  our  home 
markets  and  domestic  trade,  has  become  the  marvel 
of  the  world.  Take  a  few  comparisons,  based  upon 
the  United  States  census  of  1880,  and  upon  figures 
furnished  by  Mr.  Mulhall,  the  English  statistician  : 
In  manufacturing  we  exceeded  Great  Britain  in 
1880  by  $1,579,570,191,  France  by  $2,115,000,000, 
and  Germany  by  $2,305,000,000.  In  products  of 
agriculture  we  excelled  Great  Britain  by  $1,425,- 
000,000,  France  by  $625,000,000,  and  Germany  by 
$925,000,000. 

Our  earnings  or  income  for  1880,  from  commerce, 
agriculture,  mining,  manufactures,  the  carrying  trade 
and  banking,  exceeded  those  of  Great  Britain  from 
the  same  sources  by  $1,250,000,000,  France  by 
$2,395,000,000,  and  Germany  by  $2,775,000,000. 
Our  increase  of  wealth  from  1870  to  1880,  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  other  nations,  was  as  follows  : 
United  States,  $13,573,481,493;  Great  Britain,  $3,- 


2O6   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

250,000,000  ;  France,  $1,475,000,000  ;  Germany, 
$3,625,000,000.  In  1880  our  home  markets  con- 
sumed about  $10,000,000,000  worth  of  our  own  pro- 
ducts, an  amount  equal  to  the  entire  accumulated 
wealth  of  Spain,  three  times  the  increase  of  wealth 
in  Great  Britain  for  ten  years,  and  seven  times  the 
increase  of  France  for  the  same  period.  Our  home 
markets  that  year  absorbed  five  times  as  much  of 
our  manufacturing  products  as  Great  Britain  ex- 
ported of  hers  to  all  the  markets  of  the  world. 

Yet,  it  is  now  proposed  by  the  free  traders  to  open 
this  home  market,  the  best  in  the  world,  to  the  free 
entry  of  the  products  of  the  foreigner  without  any 
reciprocal  compensation  whatever.  Did  ever  such 
madness  possess  any  party  of  any  other  country  at 
any  period  in  the  world's  history  ? 

Under  a  protective  tariff  we  were  able  to  prose- 
cute the  war  for  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion  to 
a  triumphant  conclusion.  Since  then  it  has  enabled 
us  to  undertake  vast  internal  improvements,  and  to 
diminish  with  unexampled  facility  our  enormous  pub- 
lic debt.  Under  a  protective  tariff  the  balance  of 
trade  has  been  nearly  always  in  our  favor  to  a  very 
remarkable  extent ;  while  that  balance  has  always 
been  against  us  under  a  revenue  tariff,  with  but  few 
and  unimportant  exceptions.  During  the  twenty-two 
years  previous  to  1890  our  exports  trebled  and  our 
imports  doubled.  This  was  under  a  protective  tariff. 
Under  the  tariff  of  1890  our  export  trade  increased 
fifteen  and  one-half  per  cent ;  in  the  same  year  (1891) 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT.       2O; 

the  export  trade  of  Great  Britain  decreased  five 
and  one-half  per  cent.  From  1847  to  1861,  under 
a  free  trade  revenue  tariff,  there  was  a  balance 
of  trade  against  us  of  $431,000,000.  During  the 
whole  of  these  fifteen  years  there  were  only  two 
years  when  the  balance  of  trade  was  in  our  favor. 
From  1876  to  1891,  a  period  of  fifteen  years,  when 
we  were  under  the  protective  system,  there  were 
only  two  years  when  the  balance  of  trade  was  against 
us.  During  the  other  thirteen  years  the  balance  of 
trade  in  our  favor  was  $1,649,445,246.  In  other 
words,  a  comparison  of  fifteen  years  under  free 
trade,  or  a  revenue  tariff,  with  fifteen  years  under  a 
protective  tariff,  shows  to  the  advantage  of  protec- 
tion in  the  enormous  sum  of  $2,080,445,246. 

In  1858  the  United  States  procured  from  abroad 
most  of  the  manufactured  articles  which  it  consumed, 
and  -they  cost  more  then  than  they  have  ever  cost 
since.  Under  protection  we  have  manufactured  most 
of  the  articles  we  have  consumed,  the  price  has  stead- 
ily decreased,  and  we  have  risen  to  the  position  of 
the  second  largest  exporting  nation  in  the  world. 
Before  the  recent  changes  of  our  tariff  laws,  our 
export  trade  was  increasing  at  a  greater  rate  than 
that  of  any  other  country.  Now  it  already  shows  a 
large  decrease  in  volume,  with  a  steady  decline 


against  us. 


Free  traders  affect  great  concern  about  the  prices 
of  manufactured  goods.  Why,  nothing  can  be  cheap 
to  the  American  people  which  enforces  idleness 


2O8   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

among  our  workmen,  and  brings  with  it  the  failure  to 
make  the  most  of  our  own  rich  stores  of  raw  material. 
And  here  again  the  advocates  of  free  trade  attempt 
gross  deception  It  is  urged  that  we  should  have 
"free  raw  materials"  in  order  to  enable  us  to  produce 
articles  cheap  enough  to  compete  for  the  "  markets 
of  the  world."  Why,  under  the  protective  law  of 
1890  there  was,  practically,  free  trade  in  raw  materials 
for  the  production  of  articles  for  export.  It  granted 
a  drawback  of  ninety-nine  per  cent,  of  the  duties  paid 
on  such  raw  materials  as  were  used  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  articles  for  export.  This  system  of  drawbacks 
is  an  old  one,  dating  back  to  the  administration  of 
Washington  ;  but  the  law  of  1890  increased  the  draw- 
back from  ninety  to  ninety-nine  per  cent,  the  govern- 
ment retaining  but  one  per  cent,  for  the  expense  of 
handling  the  goods  entering  our  custom  houses.  The 
law  of  1890  also  applied  the  drawback  provision  to 
all  articles  imported  to  be  finished  here  for  use  in  the 
foreign  market,  so  that  imported  raw  materials  were 
freer  than  they  had  ever  before  been  in  this  or  any 
other  country  to  the  manufacturers  who  felt  obliged 
to  have  them.  The  only  thing  insisted  upon,  and 
required  by  the  law,  was  that  the  imported  raw  ma- 
terials should  be  honestly  used,  exclusively  for  the 
export  trade. 

The  opponents  of  the  protective  system  argue 
finally,  that  the  American  consumer  should  be  allowed 
the  privilege  of  purchasing  foreign  articles  for  the 
reason  that  they  are  cheaper  than  American-made 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT.       2Og 

articles.  ''  Buy  where  you  can  buy  the  cheapest,"  is 
their  motto.  But  cheapness  should  never  be  our  first, 
or  even  chief  consideration,  either  as  individuals  or  a 
nation.  Cheapness  is  a  relative  term.  What  may 
be  cheap  in  dollars  and  cents  may  be  dear  so  far  as 
the  ability  of  the  consumer  to  buy  is  concerned.  If 
an  article  is  sold  at  a  dollar  and  the  would-be  pur- 
chaser gets  only  seventy-five  cents  for  his  day's  labor, 
then  the  article  is  not  as  cheap  to  him  as  if  the  price 
were  $1.25  and  he  was  given  $1.50  for  the  same  labor. 
It  not  infrequently  happens  that  when  things  are  the 
cheapest,  consumers  are  the  poorest.  It  is  historically 
true,  in  America,  at  least,  that  when  goods  were  the 
cheapest,  men  were  the  poorest.  Nothing  is  cheap 
which  comes  from  abroad  if  it  displaces  a  day's  em- 
ployment needed  for  the  support  of  an  American 
workingman  or  his  family.  Anything  is  dear  if  the 
man  who  makes  it  is  not  enabled  to  make  a  decent 
living  in  producing  it. 

If  we  proceed  upon  these  lines  industry  will  be 
quickened  and  our  whole  people  will  feel  the  impulse 
of  a  new  and  enduring  prosperity. 

The  practical  operations  of  the  protective  system 
as  to  manufactured  products  have  been  not  only  to 
cheapen  in  dollars  and  cents  the  cost  of  the  article 
consumed,  but  to  maintain  along  with  this  cheapening 
of  articles  the  old  standard  of  fair  wages,  with  a 
tendency  upward.  There  is  the  highest  authority 
for  this  assertion.  Mr.  Edward  Atkinson,  an  ad- 
mitted authority,  who  is  not  friendly  to  the  protective 
H 


2IO   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

system,  writing  at  a  period  when  a  protective  law  was 
in  operation,  declared : 

"  The  share  of  the  actual  product  which  is  now 
falling  to  the  workingman,  in  the  strictest  sense, 
is  a  bigger  share  of  a  bigger  product  than  working- 
men  have  ever  attained  before  in  this  or  any  other 
country." 

The  same  gentleman  made  a  more  remarkable 
admission  in  the  Forum  for  May,  1892,  in  writing 
about  wage  conditions  in  the  United  States.  He 
said  : 

"  There  has  never  been  a  period  in  this  or  in  any 
other  country  when  the  general  rate  of  wages  was  as 
high  as  it  is  now,  or  the  price  of  goods  relatively  to 
the  wages  as  low  as  they  are  to-day,  nor  a  period 
when  the  workingman,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the 
word,  has  so  fully  secured  to  his  own  use  and  enjoy- 
ment such  a  steadily  and  progressively  increasing 
proportion  of  a  constantly  increasing  product." 

He  subsequently  said  in  the  Boston  Herald: 

"Since  1880  there  has  been  a  marked  increase  in 
the  rate  of  wages  or  earnings  of  all  occupations  of 
every  kind  above  the  grade  of  common  laborers.  So 
far  as  the  writer  has  been  able  to  obtain  the  data, 
this  advance  in  rates  of  wages  may  be  estimated  at 
from  ten  to  thirty  per  cent,  as  compared  with  the 
rates  of  1880,  the  proportionate  advance  in  each  case 
being  in  ratio  to  the  relative  skill  required  in  the 
work.  The  wages  of  the  common  laborer  have  not 
advanced  very  much,  but  he  has  been  rendered  able 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT.        211 

to  buy  more  for  his  wages  on  account  of  the  reduc- 
tion in  prices.  The  skilled  laborer  has  secured  the 
highest  rate  of  wages  ever  known  in  this  or  any 
other  country,  and  can  also  buy  more  for  each  dollar. 
The  advocate  of  free  trade  who  denies  this  advance 
makes  a  mistake." 

The  testimony  of  Mr.  Atkinson  was  abundantly 
corroborated  in  1892  by  the  Labor  Bureaus  of  the 
different  States;  by  statistics  published  by  the  United 
States  government ;  and  by  the  investigation  of  a 
special  bi-partisan  committee  of  the  United  States 
Senate,  But  the  people  themselves  do  not  need  the 
testimony  of  political  economists  or  statisticians  to 
demonstrate  to  them  what  they  know  from  their  own 
experience.  Every  workingman  is  his  own  best 
judge  as  to  his  true  financial  condition. 

Dun's  Review  of  Trade,  in  December,  1892,  de- 
clared :  "  The  year  1892  has  been  the  most  pros- 
perous ever  known  in  business."  Was  not  this  the 
universal  observation  of  the  American  people  ?  This 
prosperity  existed  under  the  protective  tariff  law  of 
1890,  just  as  our  most  abundant  prosperity  had  al- 
ways existed  under  previous  protective  tariff  enact- 
ments. 

The  direct  relation  of  labor  and  wages  to  the 
tariff  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  by  the  every- 
day experience  of  our  people.  Not  only  has  the 
protective  tariff  had  the  effect  of  increasing,  or  at 
least  maintaining  wages,  but  labor  has  been  the  first 
to  feel  the  sad  effects  of  a  decrease  of  duties,  result- 


212   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

ing  in  increased  importations  of  articles  that  had 
been  produced  at  home.  One  of  the  silly  and  thread- 
bare arguments  sometimes  urged  against  a  protective 
tariff  is  to  say  "  there  are  strikes  for  higher  wages 
under  protection."  So  there  are,  and  probably  ever 
will  be.  There  are  strikes  in  England;  indeed,  Eng- 
land is  the  mother  of  strikes,  as  she  is  the  mother  of 
free  trade.  Protection  is  not  a  cure  for  all  labor  and 
social  problems.  There  are  questions  of  grave  im- 
portance affecting  the  relations  of  capital  and  labor, 
and  bearing  upon  the  social  condition  of  the  masses, 
which  have  nothing  at  all  to  do  with  the  fiscal  policy 
of  the  country,  whether  it  be  that  of  protection  or  free 
trade.  Still  it  can  be  fairly  claimed  that  in  bringing 
more  work  and  better  wages  to  the  masses,  the  pro- 
tective system  gives  the  workman  a  better  chance 
in  the  settlement  of  the  problems  that  most  affect  his 
livelihood  and  political  and  social  conditions. 

Why  does  the  foreign  producer  take  such  an 
interest  in  the  fiscal  policy  of  the  United  States? 
Why  does  he  rejoice  at  the  overthrow  of  our  protec- 
tive system  ?  The  reason  is  apparent  even  to  the 
most  prejudiced  observer.  When  free  trade,  or  a 
revenue  tariff  prevails  in  the  United  States,  the 
foreign  factory  is  busy  supplying  the  American  market, 
and  the  American  factory  has  little  or  nothing  to  do 

Protection  not  only  directly  benefits  the  great  in- 
dustries of  the  country  by  making  it  possible  to  sus- 
tain existing  factories  and  to  establish  new  ones,  and 
thereby  furnish  constant  and  increasing  employment 


THE  TARIFF  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT.        213 

to  labor,  but  it  makes  a  steady  demand  for  raw  ma- 
terials of  every  kind  and  character,  which,  but  for  our 
manufacturing  enterprises  at  home,  would  be  practi- 
cally useless,  and  without  value.  Protection  keeps 
money  and  markets  at  home  for  the  benefit  of  our 
own  people. 

In  short,  the  protective  policy  means  American 
markets  for  American  products,  American  workshops 
for  American  workmen,  and  the  highest  material 
prosperity  and  civilization  for  the  American  people. 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


BY  THOMAS  L.  JAMES, 

WC-POSTMASTKR-OKNERAL  —  PRESIDENT  OF   LINCOLN   NATIONAL   BANK,  NEW  YORK. 


GOLD  has  been  known  from  the  very  earliest 
times.  In  the  second  chapter  of  Genesis,  where 
a  description  is  given  of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  men- 
tion is  made  of  a  land  "where  there  is  gold."  But 
the  precious  metal  was  first  used  for  ornaments. 
(Gen.  24:22.)  When  first  used  for  commercial  pur- 
poses it  was  weighed  in  rings  ;  it  was  not  until  a 
comparatively  late  period  that  coined  money  was 
known  to  the  ancients.  Among  the  early  Egyptians 
the  standard  of  value  was  a  piece  of  copper,  made  in 
the  form  of  bricks  and  circulated  by  weight.  Gold 
and  silver  were  also  used  in  the  same  manner,  though 
less  frequently,  and  made  in  the  form  of  rings,  a 
method  of  coinage  which  was  employed  in  Ireland 
down  to  the  twelfth  century,  and  which  is  still  in 
vogue  in  some  of  the  interior  countries  of  Africa. 
In  ancient  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  the  precious  metals 
were  taken  by  weight  and  verified  by  the  balance  of 
scales,  just  the  same  as  any  other  merchandise. 

The  very  early  references  to  coins  in  the  Bible  are 
said,  by  scholars,  to   refer  to    Persian  money,  which 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  People 


GOLD    AND    SILVER.  215 

was  struck  in  the  fifth  century  B.  C.  Very  much 
earlier  than  this  date,  however,  we  read  that  Abime- 
lech  gave  Abraham  "a  thousand  pieces  of  silver"  in 
expiation  of  his  treatment  of  Sarah;  and,  again,  that 
Joseph  was  sold  to  the  Ishmaelites  for  "  twenty  pieces 
of  silver."  There  is  doubt  about  the  meaning  of  this 
word  ;  some  critics  say  it  refers  to  shekels. 

Gold  is  found  in  solid  rocks  combined  with  other 
substances,  in  veins,  and  at  the  bottoms  of  rivers,  or 
streams,  the  currents  of  which  have  brought  it  down 
from  higher  altitudes.  The  methods  of  extracting  it 
vary  according  to  the  character  of  the  deposit.  The 
refuse  is  removed  by  a  mechanical  process,  shaken 
out  in  a  circular  sheet-iron  dish  with  sloping  sides, 
or,  when  the  quantity  is  large,  a  contrivance  like  a 
child's  cradle  is  used.  When  the  material  comes 
down  from  the  mountain  in  a  stream,  the  debris  is 
separated  by  means  of  troughs,  upon  which  riffles  or 
strips  of  wood  are  placed.  Hydraulic  mining  is  one 
of  the  modern  methods,  jets  of  water,  descending 
from  a  great  height,  being  forced  into  the  banks  and 
beds  containing  the  precious  metal. 

Silver,  which  is  usually  alloyed,  is  found  in  masses 
and  in  fine  threads  which  have  the  appearance  of 
metallic  twigs  and  branches.  There  is  a  mass  in  the 
royal  collection  at  Copenhagen  which  weighs  over 
500  pounds  ;  another,  found  in  Peru,  weighed  over 
800  pounds,  and  one  found  in  Sonora,  Mexico,  is  said 
to  have  weighed  2,700  pounds. 

Among  the  silver-producing  countries,  the  United 


2l6   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

States  stands  first,  and,  with  Mexico  and  Bolivia,  fur- 
nishes four-fifths  of  the  entire  product.  Germany, 
Chili  and  Spain  follow  in  the  order  of  production. 

The  principal  silver  coins  in  use  in  the  leading 
European  countries  are  :  Austria,  the  florin  (45c)  ; 
Belgium,  five  franc  (QIC)  ;  Denmark,  crown  ($1.03); 
England,  shilling  (2ic);  France,  one  franc  (i8c), 
and  five  franc  (QIC);  Germany,  five  marks  (QIC); 
Greece,  five  drachms  (82c);  Italy,  five  lire  (QIC); 
Netherlands,  2  1-2  guilders  (Q6c)  ;  Norway,  specie 
daler  ($1.93);  Portugal,  500  reis  (46c) ;  Russia, 
ruble  (74c) ;  Spain,  five  pesetas  (QIC);  Sweden, 
riksdaler  (26c) ;  Switzerland,  two  francs  (33c),  and 
Turkey,  twenty  piasters  (8ic). 

Probably  the  most  interesting  feature  connected 
with  gold,  certainly  to  American  readers,  is  its  dis- 
covery in  California  in  1848.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
the  precious  metal,  so  much  prized  and  so  much  used 
in  all  parts  of  the  world —  the  cosmopolitan  metal  — • 
was  found  on  the  land  of  a  man,  who  in  the  matter 
of  birth  and  residence,  should  claim  to  be  a  cosmo- 
politan of  the  first  rank.  This  man,  John  A.  Sutter, 
was  a  Swiss  by  parentage  ;  a  German  by  the  place  of 
his  birth  in  Baden  ;  an  American  by  residence  and 
naturalization  in  Missouri,  and  a  Mexican  by  subse- 
quent residence  and  naturalization  in  California. 

^n  1839  he  had  settled  at  the  junction  of  the  Sacra- 
mento and  American  rivers,  near  the  site  of  the 
present  city  of  Sacramento.  Sutter's  ranch  at  this 
point  was  the  headquarters  for  all  the  immigrants 


GOLD    AND    SILVER.  21  / 

coming  from  the  eastern  States.  Here  they  would 
stop  and  rest  after  their  toilsome  march  across  the 
desert,  and  purchase  fresh  supplies  of  food  and  cloth- 
ing before  continuing  their  journey  to  their  special 
points  of  destination  in  the  interior. 

In  his  capacity  as  primitive  hotel  proprietor,  or 
tavern-keeper,  Mr.  Sutter  found  that  the  Americans 
were  not  satisfied  with  his  antiquated  Mexican  method 
of  crushing  grain  by  hand  between  two  stones.  He 
found  that  he  would  be  compelled  to  build  a  flour- 
mill  to  grind  the  wheat  which  he  cultivated  on  his 
farm  in  great  quantity.  He  also  determined  to  build 
a  saw-mill,  which  was  located  in  the  mountains  be- 
cause there  was  no  good  timber  in  the  valleys.  These 
buildings  were  erected  by  James  W.  Marshall,  a 
native  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  "cranky,"  impracticable  in  his  business  methods 
and  full  of  strange  notions.  For  all  that  he  is  the 
man  who  discovered  gold  in  California. 

One  of  the  workmen  around  the  mill  was  in  the 
habit  of  keeping  a  diary,  jotting  down,  from  time  to 
time,  what  he  deemed  to  be  the  important  occurrences 
of  the  day.  Thanks  to  this  little  diary  we  know  the 
exact  time  when  gold  was  discovered  in  California. 
His  record  of  the  fact  is  as  follows  : 

"Monday,  24th  — -This  day  some  kind  of  mettle 
was  found  in  the  tail  race  that  looks  like  goald,  first 
discovered  by  James  Martial  the  boss  of  the  mill. 

"Sunday,  3Oth  —  Clear  and  has  been  all  the  last 
week.  Our  metal  has  been  tride  and  proved  to  be 


2l8   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

goald  It  is  thought  to  be  rich  We  have  pict  up  more 
than  a  hundred  dollars  worth  last  week.  February, 
1848." 

The  California  mines  are  said  to  have  yielded 
in  three  years  gold  to  the  value  of  $175,000,000. 
The  Australian  mines  yielded  in  the  same  period 
$100,000,000.  The  effect  of  this  enormous  out-put 
of  gold  on  countries  where  silver  was  the  standard 
of  value  was  the  adoption  of  a  gold  standard.  In 
this  way  the  silver  coinage  and  reserve  were  dis- 
placed ;  a  change  was  made  in  the  mint  operations 
of  England  and  France.  In  the  latter  country  silver 
is  a  legal  tender  to  a  modified  degree  :  in  England 
the  proportion  of  silver  once  authorized  has  long 
since  disappeared  from  the  bullion  reserve,  which 
now  consists  wholly  of  gold. 

The  German  Emperor,  at  the  close  of  the  war 
1870-71,  made  gold  the  sole  standard  and  dislodged 
the  old  silver  money  of  the  German  States. 

An  interesting  fact  in  connection  with  the  precious 
metal  is,  that  just  before  this  article  was  sent  to  the 
press,  the  largest  shipment  of  gold  ore  ever  sent  in 
one  train  to  the  smeltery,  either  in  this  or  any  other 
country  (viz.,  $1,000,000),  was  made  from  Denver, 
Colorado.  It  was  sent  from  the  "Independence" 
mine,  owned  by  W.  S.  Stratton,  a  typical  western 
mining  speculator,  who  started  life  as  a  carpenter, 
made  and  lost  money  by  his  investments  until  event- 
ually, to  use  the  Western  expression,  "  He  struck  it 


GOLD    AND    SILVER.  2IQ 

rich"  and  became  the  owner  of  the  "  Independence' 
mine,  which  is  now  valued  at  $5,000,000. 

The  proverbs  of  the  world  which  are  said  to  be, 
"  The  public  voice,  coined  first,  and  common  made 
by  common  choice,"  throw  considerable  light  on  the 
precious  metals  from  the  human  and  sociological 
points  of  view. 

The  power  of  gold  is  thus  tersely  indicated  :  "  Be- 
fore gold,  even  kings  take  off  their  hats."  "  Gold  is 
the  best  mediator."  "  Gold  rules  the  court,  the 
camp,  the  grave,  and  married  men  and  men  in  love." 
41  If  the  walls  were  adamant,  gold  would  take  the 
town."  "  There  is  no  better  friend  in  misfortune 
than  gold."  "  There  is  no  lock  one  cannot  open 
with  a  golden  key."  "  Where  gold  chinks,  argu- 
ments are  of  no  avail."  "A  silver  hammer  breaks  an 
iron  door,"  and  "  Fight  with  silver  spurs  and  you  will 
overcome  everything." 

To  prove  that  gold,  valuable  as  it  is,  is  not  a  cure 
for  all  the  ills  of  life,  we  have  :  "A  gold  ring  does 
not  cure  a  felon."  "  A  golden  bit  makes  none  the 
better  horse,"  and  "  A  golden  gallows  is  still  but  a 
gallows." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  uselessness  of  the  precious 
metal  in  its  relation  to  religion  and  character  are  thus 
sententiously  set  forth  :  "A  golden  key  opens  every 
door  save  that  of  heaven."  "  Gold  and  goods  may 
be  lost ;  a  good  name  endures  forever."  "  Gold  goes 
through  all  doors  except  heaven's  doors,"  and  "  Gold 
is  the  snare  of  the  soul." 


22O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Unfortunate  people  who  cannot  get  gold,  and 
cynics  generally,  comfort  themselves  with  such  re- 
flections as,  "  A  great  load  of  gold  is  more  burden- 
some than  a  light  load  of  gravel."  "  Better  whole 
than  patched  with  gold."  "  He  who  has  gold  has 
fear ;  who  has  none  has  sorrow."  "  Gold  is  the 
devil's  fish-hook."  While  the  scholarly  Petrarch 
summed  up  the  argument  in  this  way :  "  He  who  ex- 
pends gold  properly  is  its  master  ;  who  lays  it  up,  its 
keeper ;  who  loves  it,  a  fool  ;  who  adores  it,  an 
idolater  ;  the  truly  wise  man  is  he  who  despises  it." 

I  have  made  no  attempt  in  this  article  to  discuss 
what  is  generally  called  "  The  Financial  Question," 
because  my  space  is  limited  and  the  subject  is  of 
such  far-reaching  importance,  that  he  who  seeks  to 
mold  public  opinion,  should,  with  due  regard  to 
propriety,  do  so  only  after  long  and  careful  study  of 
the  matter.  Such  discussion  would  involve,  at  the 
very  beginning,  an  argument  on  the  fundamental 
question  underlying  all  finance,  to  wit :  "  What  is 
money  ?  "  The  political  economists,  the  philosophers 
and  the  doctrinaires  have  been  writing  about  this 
question  almost  since  the  precious  metals  have  been 
used  as  a  medium  of  exchange;  and,  it  may  be  said, 
that  about  the  only  point  upon  which  they  all  agree 
is  the  undisputed  fact,  that  money  is  a  convenient 
commodity  to  have.  Then  they  all  part  company, 
each  one  proclaiming  his  belief  as  to  what  really  is 
money,  and  each  one,  it  may  be  added,  eager  and 
glad  to  obtain  the  coin  of  the  realm,  or  its  substitute, 


GOLD    AND    SILVER.  221 

for  such  services  as  he  is  able  to  render  to  the  com- 
munity. As  a  well-known  writer  says  :  "  Money  is  a 
word  in  continual  use  all  over  the  civilized  world,  and 
perhaps  there  is  none  the  meaning  of  which  in  con- 
nection with  the  business  they  have  in  hand  is  more 
distinctly  understood  by  those  who  use  it ;  and,  yet, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  none  of  which  it  is  more 
difficult  to  give  a  comprehensive  account  or  a  strict 
definition."  Under  these  circumstances,  I  can  be  well 
excused  (and  the  reader  can  be  happily  spared)  a 
description  of  the  financial  question,  when,  so  to 
speak,  the  very  threshold  of  the  edifice  is  as  large  as 
the  building  itself. 

There  is  one  remarkable  fact,  however,  connected 
with  this  discussion,  and  that  is  that  the  production 
of  gold  has  increased  so  much  during  this  contest 
between  the  so-called  "Gold-bugs"  and  the  Silverites  ; 
and  such  an  increased  value  has  been  placed  upon 
it,  that  many  able  financiers  contend  that  the  effect 
will  be  to  make  the  white  metal  more  valuable  as  a 
standard  of  value.  After  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
California  and  Australia,  the  price  of  silver  increased  ; 
but  when,  in  our  country,  the  Comstock  mines  were 
discovered  and  it  was  shown  how  easy  silver  could 
be  mined,  it  became  reduced  in  value,  until  it  is 
cheaper  than  it  has  ever  been  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  With  the  development  of  new  gold  mines 
and  the  extraction  of  the  ore  by  modern  appliances 
(steam-drills,  etc.),  some  thinkers  believe  that  the 
financial  question  will  be  settled  by  itself,  and  before 


222   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

our  law-makers  have  come  to  a  conclusion  in  regard 
to  the  matter.  This  is  a  consummation  devoutly  to 
be  wished  for;  and,  judging  from  recent  congres- 
sional experience,  it  would  not  be  presumptuous  to 
say  that  it  may  come  about 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  People. 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION. 


BY  J.  K.  UPTON. 

ASSIST AKT  teCBKTASY  OF  THE  TREASURY  UNDER  SECRETARIES  SHERMAN,  WINDOM  AWfc 

FOLGER. 


S>  ^ 

v^-^fc^X- 


224   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

TO  establish  standards  by  which  the  dimensions 
or  weight  of  material  objects  could  be  ascer- 
tained and  expressed,  engaged  the  best  wit  of  man- 
kind for  a  long  period. 

Only  by  resort  to  most  exact  scientific  processes 
have  our  present  standards  been  established  upon  a 
basis  as  permanent,  unchangeable  and  indestructible 
as  the  laws  of  gravitation  and  the  revolution  of  the 
earth. 

Unfortunately  no  standard  of  value  having  such 
certain  and  stable  properties  has  been  provided  by 
nature.  The  holder  of  a  commodity  will  part  with 
it  only  upon  terms  which  may  suit  his  necessities, 
whim,  or  caprice,  consequently  there  are  as  many 
standards  of  value  as  there  are  holders  of  com- 
modities. 

Could  commodities  be  exchanged  direct,  article  for 
article,  no  need  of  a  value  standard  would  exist.  But 
only  to  a  limited  extent  are  such  changes  practicable, 
and  the  necessities  of  trade  long  ago  led  to  the  inter- 
position of  a  third  commodity  in  the  desired  exchange, 
known  as  money.  From  the  earliest  times  silver,  and 
from  more  recent  date  gold,  have  been  used  for  this 
purpose.  These  two  metals,  more  than  any  other 
commodities,  possess  certain  attributes  peculiarly 
fitting  them  for  such  duty.  They  are  but  little 
affected  by  exposure  to  the  elements ;  they  submit 
readily  to  any  form  required,  and  lose  little  or  nothing 
by  melting.  They  can  be  broken  or  cut  in  pieces 
without  loss  ;  they  possess  a  value  relative  to  weight, 


THE    SILVER    QUESTION.  225 

neither  too  great  nor  too  minute,  and  for  them  there 
is  everywhere  a  demand  for  use  in  the  arts,  which  is 
comparatively  uniform  and  certain.  For  these  reasons, 
holders  of  commodities  anywhere  will  part  with  their 
holdings  for  either  of  these  two  metals,  knowing  that 
they  can  at  their  pleasure  obtain  for  it  any  other 
commodity  they  may  desire. 

When  Abraham  bought  the  cave  of  Machpelah  he 
paid  for  it  in  silver  of  current  weight  among  the 
merchants.  It  was  a  simple  and  honest  transaction, 
and  one  doubtless  advantageous  to  both  parties.  If, 
later,  human  laws  had  not  interfered,  like  exchanges 
would  .have  gone  on  uninterrupted  from  that  time  to 
this  —  all  differences  being  adjusted,  each  case  by 
itself  and  by  the  parties  thereto.  But  in  an  unwise 
moment  the  law  attempted  to  control  such  transac- 
tions, and  legislators  have  since  been  busy  regulating 
and  fixing  the  rates  of  the  two  metals  to  each  other, 
and  to  other  commodities  with  the  only  practical 
result  that  in  the  end  somebody  has  been  cheated. 

One  device  was  to  make  the  coin  a  legal  tender  in 
payment  of  debt,  then  reduce  its  weight,  but  keep  its 
debt-paying  power  unchanged ;  another,  to  give  the 
same  name  to  a  coin  of  each  metal  of  fixed  weight, 
and  leave  to  the  debtor  his  option  which  to  use  in 
satisfaction  of  his  obligation,  a  plan  familiarly  known 
as  bi-metalism. 

The  treatment  by  Parliament  of  the  pound  sterling 
illustrates  this  first  method  of  interference.  Origi- 
nally, the  pound  in  value  was  a  pound  in  weight  of 
15 


226   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

pure  silver.  Out  of  this  amount  of  metal,  twenty 
pieces  of  even  weight  were  authorized  to  be  coined, 
to  be  known  as  shillings.  King  Edward  III,  how- 
ever, pressed  for  means  to  pay  his  royal  debts, 
directed  that  a  pound  of  silver  should  be  coined  into 
twenty-two  pieces  instead  of  twenty,  each  piece  a 
legal  tender  for  a  shilling,  as  before.  In  this  way 
the  crown  gained  for  its  own  private  use  two  shillings 
out  of  every  twenty-two  coined.  The  successors  of 
this  king  repeated  the  operation  from  time  to  time, 
as  their  needs  demanded,  until  Queen  Elizabeth 
directed  that  sixty-two  pieces  be  coined  from  the 
pound,  making  the  shilling  less  than  one-third  of  its 
original  weight.  Yet,  all  this  time,  the  piece  was  do- 
ing duty  in  paying  debts  at  its  original  valuation. 
Violent  fluctuations  in  the  value  of  property  neces- 
sarily followed  this  last  reduction,  and  the  people 
became  aware  that  in  some  way  there  was  cheating 
around  the  board,  and  an  outcry  was  raised  that 
stopped  any  further  attempt  in  that  country  to  hum- 
bug the  public  by  a  reduction  of  the  monetary 
standard. 

By  other  countries,  the  experiment  of  bi-metalism 
has  been  tried.  In  this  country,  the  Constitution 
having  granted  Congress  the  power  to  coin  money 
and  regulate  its  value,  Hamilton  and  Jefferson  in 
1792  agreed  to  a  plan,  which  became  a  law,  by  which, 
for  debt-paying  purposes,  one  pound  of  gold  should 
be  equal  to  fifteen  and  a  half  of  silver  —  the  supposed 
commercial  rate.  A  piece  to  be  known  as  a  dollar, 


THE    SILVER    QUESTION.  22  7 

was  to  be  the  standard  unit  of  value  as  well  as  a 
coin  for  circulation.  This  piece,  if  of  silver,  was  to 
contain  371.25  grains ;  if  of  gold,  24.75.  Each  metal 
was  to  be  coined  upon  like  conditions  for  depositors 
of  bullion,  at  the  public  mint,  at  that  rating,  and  in 
the  payment  of  a  debt  calling  for  dollars,  the  debtor, 
under  the  law,  had  his  option  which  metal  to  use  in 
the  satisfaction  of  his  obligation.  The  framers  of 
this  plan  proclaimed  their  belief  that  in  this  way, 
gold  and  silver  would  circulate  together  as  money  — 
but  soon  after  the  plan  went  into  operation  it  was 
found  that  holders  of  bullion  brought  to  the  mint  for 
coinage  into  dollars  only  silver,  as  they  could  get 
more  dollars  for  gold  bullion  in  the  market  than  at 
the  mint. 

The  relation  in  value  of  one  to  fifteen  and  one- 
half  in  weight,  if  ever  alike  in  law  and  in  the  market 
at  the  same  time,  did  not  long  remain  so,  and  silver 
alone  furnished  the  circulation,  being  the  cheaper 
metal,  and  the  law  remaining  unchanged.  But  the 
new  silver  dollar,  with  its  quarters,  halves  and  tenths, 
found  a  rival  competitor  for  circulation.  Through- 
out the  country,  a  Spanish  dollar  with  its  "  real "  or 
eighth  pieces  had  been  previously  much  employed  in 
the  colonies,  and  Congress,  to  keep  these  pieces  in 
circulation,  declared  them  legal  tender  also  in  the 
payment  of  debts  to  the  amount  expressed  on  their 
face.  These  pieces,  through  long  use,  had  become 
light  in  weight,  but  being  just  as  good  in  payment  of 
a  debt,  they  were  kept  in  circulation  for  that  purpose, 


228   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

while  the  new  coins,  plump  and  bright  from  the  mint, 
were  melted  down  for  use  or  shipped  abroad.  None 
remained  in  circulation,  and  therefore  in  1805,  Mr. 
Jefferson,  then  President,  directed  the  mint  to  cease 
coining  silver  dollar  pieces.  For  more  than  thirty 
years  these  light  foreign  coins  continued  to  furnish 
the  metallic  circulation  of  the  country,  all  debts 
being  payable  in  them.  They  circulated  by  the  ope- 
rations of  a  law  under  which  the  cheaper  currency 
will  always  drive  out  the  dearer  —  a  law  stronger  and 
more  certain  in  its  action  than  any  law  of  Congress, 
for  it  is  founded  upon  human  greed. 

•To  improve  the  currency  and  restore  gold  thereto, 
in  1837  Congress  directed  the  gold  coins  to  be 
reduced  in  weight  about  7-10  of  a  grain  to  a  dollar. 
In  this  way,  the  bullion  in  a  coined  dollar  of  gold 
•was  made  worth  less  in  the  market  than  the  bullion 
in  a  coined  dollar  of  silver,  and  the  gold  coins  under 
the  law  mentioned  being  the  cheaper  currency,  would 
promptly  have  filled  the  channels  of  circulation,  but 
again,  the  worn  Spanish  silver  pieces,  being  a  still 
cheaper  currency,  kept  them  out  of  use. 

These  nuisances  were  tolerated  until  1857,  when 
Congress  authorized  the  issue  from  the  mints  of 
fractional  silver  pieces,  lighter  even  than  the  much- 
worn  Spanish  ones,  and  the  redemption  at  the  mints 
of  the  latter  coins  at  their  nominal  value.  Immedi- 
ately the  new  coins  came  into  use  —  not  in  excess, 
for  their  issue  was  limited  to  the  demand  for  them  at 
their  face  value  for  gold.  Then  the  circulation  of 


THE    SILVER    QUESTION.  22Q 

the  country  for  the  first  time  consisted  of  both 
metals  circulating  together,  and  was  entirely  satis- 
factory to  all  sections.  The  silver  dollar,  how- 
ever, ceased  to  be  issued  for  circulation,  though 
authorized,  its  value  being  greater  for  bullion 
purposes. 

In  1878  it  was  noticed  that  silver,  in  relation  to 
gold,  was  rapidly  losing  its  value,  and  the  country 
looked  to  see  the  silver  dollar  come  into  use  as  the 
unit  of  account  and  coin  of  circulation,  but  it  was 
discovered  that,  in  1873,  in  a  revision  of  the  mint 
laws,  Congress  had  left  no  authority  for  the  further 
coinage  of  this  piece.  Great  was  the  outcry  that 
this  grand  opportunity  to  flood  the  country  with  the 
"dollar  of  the  daddies"  had  been  lost.  In  1878,  to 
appease  the  clamor,  authority  was  given  by  Congress 
to  coin  $2,000,000  worth  at  least,  of  bullion  per 
month  on  government  account,  the  profit  to  go  into 
the  general  treasury.  But  this  did  not  satisfy,  and 
in  1890,  a  bill  passed  the  House  authorizing  an 
unlimited  coinage  of  the  silver  dollar,  at  a  ratio  in 
\veight  to  gold  of  about  16  to  i  —  as  established  by 
the  act  of  1837.  The  bill,  as  amended  in  the  Senate, 
repealed  the  act  of  1878,  under  which  $422,000,000 
had  been  coined,  and  authorized  the  purchase  of 
$4,000,000  worth  of  bullion  per  month,  in  payment 
for  which  legal  tender  certificates  should  be  issued, 
payable  in  "coin,"  and  in  this  form  the  bill  became  a 
law  July  12,  1890.  This  authority  for  the  purchase 
of  silver  bullion  was  repealed  by  act  approved  Nov. 


230   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE 

i,  1893,  after  about  151,000,000  of  certificates  had 
been  issued,  and  to-day  no  authority  for  the  coinage 
of  silver  dollars  or  the  issue  of  silver  certificates 
exists,  except  for  the  additional  issue  of  fractional 
coins  as  authorized  by  the  act  of  1857. 

In  the  act  of  1890,  Congress  declared  that  the 
parity  of  value  between  the  two  metals  should  be 
maintained.  Ostensibly  for  such  maintenance,  the 
treasury  has  within  a  year  issued  for  gold  $100,000,- 
ooo  of  bonds  in  addition  to  a  like  amount  issued  in 
1878,  to  provide  a  reserve  for  legal  tender  notes 
then  outstanding.  The  question  which  now  con- 
fronts the  country  is  what  further  legislation,  if  any, 
in  regard  to  the  employment  of  silver  for  circulation 
is  proper  and  necessary,  gold  now  being  the  standard 
of  value,  and  gold  coins  the  only  ones  authorized  to 
be  issued  of  full  legal  tender  quality. 

There  seems  to  be  no  demand  in  any  part  of  the 
country  for  the  further  purchase  of  silver  bullion  and 
the  coinage  of  dollar  pieces  on  government  account, 
but  there  is,  especially  in  the  west  and  southwest,  a 
persistent  demand  for  the  coinage  of  silver  dollars, 
for  depositors  of  silver  bullion  at  the  mint  free  of 
charge,  as  is  now  done  for  depositors  of  gold  bullion. 
No  other  plan  is  suggested  ;  no  other  scheme  urged. 
If  the  use  of  silver  as  currency  is  to  be  further  ex- 
tended, it  will  be  upon  the  basis  of  free  coinage,  and 
also  at  a  ratio  to  gold  in  weight  of  16  to  i,  as  now 
exists. 

To-day  the  silver  necessary  to  coin  a  dollar  can  be 


THE    SILVER    QUESTION.  231 

purchased  for  somewhat  less  than  one-half  a  dollar 
in  gold.  To  give  free  coinage  to  silver  means  to  put 
into  unlimited  circulation  silver  dollar  pieces,  the 
intrinsic  value  of  which  is  less  than  one-half  of  the 
gold  dollar,  our  present  standard.  As  the  govern- 
ment would  no  longer  stand  behind  these  pieces  to 
give  them  a  fictitious  value,  as  at  present,  our  stand- 
ard of  value  would  at  once  drop  one-half.  The  pieces 
would  still  be  dollars,  but  their  purchasing  power 
would  be  but  one-half  as  great  as  at  present.  To 
the  public  the  change  would  come  in  enhanced  prices 
for  grain,  meats,  cloth  and  everything,  for  the  price 
of  all  commodities  thus  measured  would  necessarily 
be  doubled. 

When  exchanges  are  once  thus  settled,  perhaps  no 
particular  injury  would  flow  out  of  transactions  based 
thereon. 

France  has  the  franc  piece,  less  than  one-fifth  of 
our  dollar,  as  a  standard,  with  no  special  incon- 
venience. The  great  objection  to  the  proposed 
change  to  a  silver  basis  is  the  wrong  that  would  be 
done  to  holders  of  obligations  calling  for  dollars  and 
payable  in  the  future.  Such  obligations  are  mainly 
bonds  issued  by  the  Nation  or  States,  by  counties  or 
other  local  divisions,  railroads  and  other  corporations, 
and  mortgages  issued  upon  real  estate — all  calling 
for  dollars  at  some  future,  time. 

The  amount  of  these  obligations  include  at  least 
the  following,  expressed  in  even  millions : 


232   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

The  National  debt $1,100,000,000 

Debts  of  the  several  States 229,000,000 

counties 145 , 000,000 

municipalities 724,000,000 

school  districts 37,000,000 

Funded  debt  of  railroads 5 , ooo, ooo , ooo 

Mortgages  on  real  estate 6,000,000,000 

Total $13 , 235 , ooo ,  ooo 

Should  the  silver  dollar  become  the  standard,  the 
total  wealth  of  the  country  would,  perhaps,  not  be 
affected,  but  there  would  be  an  actual  loss  to  the 
holders  of  these  obligations  of  one-half  of  the  total 
amount,  or  $6,167,500,000,  and  a  corresponding  gain 
to  the  obligators.  In  other  words,  the  free  coinage 
of  silver  would,  in  its  operation,  take  more  than 
$6,000,000,000  of  property  —  one-tenth  of  the  entire 
wealth  of  the  country  —  from  its  present  owners,  and 
transfer  it,  without  consideration,  to  other  parties 
who  have  no  right  to  it,  and  this  exclusive  of  a  vast 
amount  of  personal  obligations. 

One  shudders  at  the  thought  of  such  an  iniquity, 
and,  when  understood,  there  must  be  honor  enough 
remaining  in  the  American  people  to  prevent  the 
consummation  of  such  bare-faced  robbery. 

But,  it  is  alleged  by  the  advocates  of  free  silver 
coin,  in  excuse  for  their  demands,  that  gold  has  ap- 
preciated since  its  demonetization  in  1873,  reducing 
the  price  of  agricultural  products  and  other  commo- 
dities, and  consequently  the  farmer  can  no  longer  get 
for  the  products  of  his  farm  what  he  could  in  former 


THE    SILVER    QUESTION.  233 

years,  and  that  all  industries  are  injured  by  the  low 
prices  arising  from  the  relative  increased  value  of 
gold. 

When  we  speak  of  the  value  of  gold  or  silver,  we 
mean  the  rate  at  which  the  metal  in  question  can  be 
generally  exchanged  for  other  commodities,  and  this 
rate  depends,  as  is  well  known,  upon  the  demand  for, 
and  supply  of,  the  metal,  and  when  it  is  alleged  that 
gold  has  appreciated  in  value,  it  only  means  that  a 
certain  fixed  quantity  of  it  can  be  exchanged  for 
more  wheat,  more  cotton,  more  meat  and  more  bread- 
stuff, or  more  manufactured  goods,  than  before. 
Whether  gold  has  thus  appreciated  in  reference  to 
other  commodities  and  to  wages  paid,  became  a  very 
interesting  question  several  years  ago,  and  the  Fi- 
nance Committee  of  the  Senate,  in  1891,  authorized 
a  sub-committee  to  make  an  investigation  of  this  very 
matter.  This  sub-committee  consisted  of  Senators 
Aldrich,  Allison,  Jones  of  Nevada,  Harris  and  Car- 
lisle, and  the  investigation  was  conducted  through 
Hon.  Carroll  D.  Wright,  Commissioner  of  Labor. 
An  elaborate  report  thereon  was  made  to  the  Senate, 
approved  by  all  the  members  of  the  sub-committee, 
and  the  correctness  of  the  figures  has  never  been 
questioned.  The  committee  extended  the  inquiry 
back  to  1840,  but  they  accepted  the  year  1860  as  a 
standard  year,  and  made  all  comparisons  of  prices 
with  those  of  that  year.  Among  other  things,  they 
ascertained  for  all  the  principal  agricultural  products 
how  much  the  owner  could  get  in  gold  each  year 


234   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

from  1840  to  1891,  for  a  quantity  which  in  1860 
would  bring  him  $100  in  gold.  Of  the  principal 
items,  barley  had  increased  during  the  51  years  in 
relative  price  from  83.1  to  101.0  ;  cotton  from  83.2  to 
96.0;  hemp  from  88  to  108  ;  oats  from  102  to  114; 
rye  from  79.6  to  87.9  ;  beeves  from  65.8  to  92.3  ;  hogs 
from  50.5  to  66.9  ;  tobacco  from  94.1  to  1 1 1.8  ;  wheat 
No.  2  Spring  from  43.1  to  76.6.  From  1860  to  1891 
a  few  of  the  food  products  show  a  decrease  in  value, 
wheat  noticeably  so,  decreasing  from  100  to  60,  and 
corn  from  100  to  81.7.  But,  for  proper  comparison, 
the  average  price  of  the  principal  commodities  should 
bs  compared. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  prices  in 
gold  of  the  nine  staple  agricultural  products,  barley, 
corn,  cotton, .  hemp,  oats,  meats,  rye,  tobacco  and 
wheat,  combined,  and,  for  comparison,  the  price  of 
silver,  for  dates  named,  as  prepared  by  the  Finance 
Committee  of  the  United  States  Senate  : 


VEAR. 

Agricultural 
products. 

Silver. 

YEAR. 

Agricultural 
products. 

Silver. 

1860 

IOO.O 

ioi  .4 

l88o 

102-9 

85-9 

1865 

97-3 

II7.I 

I885 

87.9 

79-9 

1870 

107.7 

87-5 

1890 

93-7 

78.4 

1875 

116.8 

98.4 

l89I 

98.4 

74.1 

An  examination  of  the  average  prices  for  1860  and 
1891  shows  that  the  average  exchange  value  of  gold 
had  increased  meanwhile  less  than  2  per  cent  dur- 
ing the  31  years  in  question.  Had  silver  meanwhile 


THE    SILVER    QUESTION.  235 

furnished  the  standard,  the  variation  would  have  been 
27  per  cent  in  i  7  years.  No  better  methods  of  meas- 
uring the  relative  values  of  the  two  metals  has  ever 
been  devised,  and  the  result  shows  the  falsity  of  any 
allegation  that  gold  has  appreciated  in  value  to  any 
great  extent,  or  that  it  is  less  stable  than  silver. 

The  invention  of  labor  saving  machines  has  doubt- 
less cheapened  manufactured  articles  to  some  extent 
within  the  last  50  years.  A  cheaper  rate  would 
therefore  occur  regardless  of  any  variation  in  the 
exchange  value  of  gold  or  silver  for  other  commodi- 
ties or  the  employment  of  either  metal  for  a  stand- 
ard. But  the  report  further  shows  that,  while  the 
farmer  obtains  substantially  the  same  prices  for  his 
articles  in  1891  that  he  did  in  1860,  and  10  per  cent 
more  than  he  did  for  same  articles  in  1840,  he  pays 
less  for  most  things  that  he  has  to  purchase.  New 
Orleans  molasses,  worth  100  in  1860  was  worth  but 
67  9-10  in  1891.  Blankets,  cotton  warp,  wool  fillings, 
which  were  100  in  1860,  were  worth  but  82  9-10  in 
1891.  Carpets,  ingrain,  two-ply,  Lowell,  which  were 
worth  100  in  1860,  were  worth  but  78  4-10  in  1891. 
Print  cloths,  which  were  worth  100  in  1860,  were 
worth  but  54  7-10  in  1891.  The  prices  of  shirtings 
had  fallen  meanwhile  from  100  to  71.  Tickings 
from  100  to  70  6-10.  Candles  from  100  to  48. 
Matches  from  100  to  77  i-io.  Cut  nails  from  100  to 
59  4-10.  Common  hand  saws  from  100  to  37  5-10. 
Chemicals  are  almost  invariably  less,  quinine  having 
gone  down  from  100  in  1860,  to  27  3-10  in  1891. 


236   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Furniture  is  much  cheaper,  having  gone  down  from 
100  in  1860  to  about  70  in  1891.  And  of  glassware, 
pitchers  have  gone  down  from  100  to  206-10  ;  tumb- 
lers from  100  to  41  7-10.  Castile  soap  has  also  gone 
down  from  100  to  73  5-10.  There  has  been  an  in- 
crease in  a  few  articles — sugar  cured  ham  in  the 
period  of  31  years  having  gone  up  22  per  cent; 
mutton,  30  per  cent  ;  Turk's  Island  salt,  25  per  cent. 

The  inquiry  of  the  committee  extended  to  223 
articles  for  comparison  between  1860  and  1891,  and 
to  85  articles  between  1840  and  1891.  Grouping 
these  by  years,  it  is  found  that  articles  of  food  are 
3  9-10  higher  in  1891  than  they  were  in  1860  ;  that 
lumber  and  building  materials  are  about  22  per  cent 
higher.  But  there  has  been  a  falling  off  in  the  prices 
of  cloths  and  clothing,  fuel  and  lighting,  and  metals 
and  implements.  The  average  of  all  the  groups 
shows  that  what  could  have  been  purchased  for  100 
in  1860  would  have  cost  but  90  3-10  in  1840,  and 
92  2-10  in  1891.  This  shows  that  the  leading  com- 
modities which  enter  into  the  consumption  of  fami- 
lies are  7  8-10  per  cent  cheaper  in  1891  than  in  1860. 
This  may  readily  be  accounted  for  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  labor  saving  machines,  and  there  is  no  need 
of  supposing  that  any  appreciation  in  the  exchange 
value  of  gold  caused  even  this  depreciation  in  prices 
of  manufactured  goods. 

Notwithstanding  a  small  decrease  in  the  value  of 
commodities  entering  into  general  consumption,  and 
a  still  smaller  decrease  in  the  value  of  farm  products, 


THE    SILVER   QUESTION.  237 

the  wages  of  laboring  men  employed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  leather,  gas,  wool,  cotton,  iron,  steel,  and  in 
other  occupations,  have  steadily  increased  since  1840. 
The  committee  obtained  61  complete  series  of  wage 
returns,  from  1840  to  1860,  and  543  distinct  series  to 
cover  the  period  from  1860  to  1891.  These  returns 
show  that,  taking  the  average  relative  wages  in  gold 
of  all  the  occupations,  for  every  $100  the  laborer  re- 
ceived in  1860,  he  received  $80  in  1841  ;  $147.10  in 
1873;  $150.70  in  1881  ;  and  $168.60  in  1891.  In 
other  words,  the  average  wages  of  laboring  men  em- 
ployed in  all  the  occupations  reported  are  68  6-ioper 
cent  higher  in  1891  than  in  1860.  These  wages,  for 
both  periods,  are  measured  in  gold,  and  if  gold  has 
appreciated,  as  alleged,  there  should  still  be  added  to 
the  reported  increase  the  amount  of  the  appreciation 
to  ascertain  the  true  returns  of  this  labor.  The  ap- 
preciation of  gold,  if  any,  has  certainly  wrought  no 
injury  to  the  great  mass  of  laboring  men  in  the  coun- 
try, for  their  wages  have  increased  and  their  expenses 
decreased  steadily  for  at  least  the  thirty  years  in 
question. 

But  it  is  alleged  by  the  advocates  of  free  coinage 
of  silver,  that  there  is  not  gold  enough  in  the  world 
to  furnish  the  needed  circulation,  and  silver  should, 
therefore,  be  also  employed.  This  might  be  true 
were  only  the  metal  itself  used  for  circulation.  In 
commercial  transactions  to-day,  however,  notes  and 
checks  are  principally  the  instruments  employed  in 
effecting  changes.  The  New  York  City  Clearing 


238   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

House,  reports  show  that  out  of  $100,000,000  ex- 
changes passing  through  that  institution,  less  than 
$1,000,000,  or  one  per  cent,  is  in  coin,  and  the  use 
of  notes  and  checks  is  extending  and  increasing  in 
every  part  of  the  civilized  world. 

Experience  has  shown  that  under  certain  restric- 
tions, circulation  notes,  payable  on  demand,  issued  by 
a  bank  or  nation,  will  circulate  at  par  with  coin 
greatly  to  the  convenience  and  advantage  of  the  pub- 
lic. A  metallic  reserve  of  one-third  of  the  circulation 
is  generally  found  sufficient  to  maintain  the  notes  at 
par.  The  stock  of  gold  in  the  world  is  more  than 
ample  for  such  reserve. 

From  recent  statistics  published  by  the  Director  of 
the  Mint,  it  seems  that,  exclusive  of  China,  India  and 
the  Islands  of  the  Pacific,  concerning  whose  monetary 
condition  little  is  known,  the  total  of  all  kinds  of 
money  in  circulation  amounted  to  $7,979,578,000,  in- 
cluded in  which  there  was  of  gold  $3,582,605,000, 
enough  to  have  furnished  a  reserve  at  the  ratio  above 
indicated  for  a  circulation  of  $10,747,815,000,  or 
$2,968,237,000  more  than  the  total  circulation  of 
paper  and  metal  combined,  indicating  no  lack  of  gold 
to  provide  any  reasonable  reserve  for  a  sufficient 
circulation. 

Again,  the  yield  of  gold  within  the  last  three  de- 
cades has  greatly  exceeded  that  of  any  previous 
decade,  and  it  seems  to  be  still  increasing.  The 
population  of  Europe  and  America,  and  the  yield 
of  both  gold  and  silver  in  these  two  continents  for 


THE    SILVER    QUESTION.  239 

the  last  one  hundred  years,  can  be  pretty  accurately 
determined. 

The  total  average  annual  yield  of  both  metals  per 
100  of  population  from  1800  to  1850,  was  as  fol- 
lows :  For  decade  ending  with  1800,  $25.59;  1810, 
$22.74;  1820,  $12.29;  I^3°>  $10.62;  1840,  $13.01; 
1850,  $22.38. 

The  average  annual  yield  per  100  of  population 
in  the  same  countries,  of  gold  alone,  since  1850,  has 
been  as  follows:  For  decade  ending  with  1860, 
$36.81;  1870,  $29.30;  1880,  $23.06;  for  year  ending 
with  1893,  $35.53. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  yield  of  gold  per  capita 
since  1850  has  been  greater  than  that  of  both  metals 
previous  to  that  period.  Yet  the  business  of  the 
world  was  done  on  the  basis  of  the  two  metals  pre- 
vious to  1850,  without  embarrassment  and  without 
so  enlarged  a  use  of  notes  and  checks,  and  surely 
there  can  be  no  deficiency  in  gold  for  the  purpose 
hereafter,  as  long  as  the  present  yield  continues. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  there  seems  to  be, 
also,  an  impression  that  the  free  coinage  of  silver 
will,  in  some  way,  bring  relief  to  the  so-called  labor- 
ing classes.  Precisely  in  what  way  the  relief  is  to 
come  is  not  stated.  Certainly,  there  is  nothing  -in 
the  condition  of  these  classes  in  countries  having  a 
free  coinage  of  that  metal  to  induce  the  introduction 
of  a  like  coinage  in  this  country. 

Our  sister  republic,  Mexico,  enjoys  a  free  silver 
coinage  with  all  the  blessings  the  scheme  can  afford. 


240   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

It  is  well  known  that  farm  laborers  in  that  country 
live  in  mud  houses  upon  the  estates  of  the  wealthy, 
in  a  sort  of  serfdom,  supporting  themselves  upon 
about  twenty-five  cents  a  day,  Mexican  money. 
Skilled  labor  is  relatively  as  poorly  paid. 

The  following  table  published  officially  shows  the 
wages  received  in  the  City  of  Mexico  on  July  i,  1890, 
for  certain  occupations,  compared  with  like  wages  in 
United  States  at  same  time  reduced  to  the  common 
standard  of  gold : 


OCCUPATIONS. 

WAGES  IN  MEXICO. 
PER  DAY. 

WAGES  IN 
UNITED  STATES. 
PER  DAY. 

Difference  in 
favor  of  the 
United  States. 

Mexican 
silver 
dollar. 

Equivalent 
in  U.  S. 
gold  coin. 

Gold  coin 
or  its 
equivalent. 

2.50 
1.50 

•5° 

1.  00 

1.25 

.875 
1.25 

1  .00 

2.00 
2.OO 
.OO 
•25 

•75 
•5° 
•5° 

T.  88 

i-*3 

-38 
•75 
•94 
.66 
.98 

•75 
1.50 
1.50 

•75 
•94 
i-3i 
'•13 
1-13 

2.50 

2-55 
1.50 

3-84 
3-5° 
2-45 
2.28 
1.97 
2.50 
2.50 
1.30 
3-24 
2-44 
3-79 

2  .OO 

.66 
1.42 

I  .  12 

3-79 
2.56 
1.99 
i-34 

1.22 

I.OO 
I.  00 

•55 
2.30 

i-73 
2.66 
.89 

Railroad  contractors.. 
Stone  cutters   ....... 

Coach  makers  

Engine  drivers  

Firemen  

At  the  same  time,  the  prices  of  nearly  all  com- 
modities were  higher  in  Mexico  than  in  the  United 
States,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  table  below,  showing 


THE    SILVER    QUESTION. 


241 


prices  of  several  articles  as  published  in  the  City  of 
Mexico,  reduced  to  a  common  gold  standard : 


PRICKS  IN  MEXICO. 

PRICES  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

COMMODITIES. 

In  favor  of 
United 

Mexican 

Equivalent 

r*«M 

States. 

dollar. 

in  U.  S.  gold. 

vrOlQ. 

Flour,  per  barrel.  .  . 

10.780 

$8.080 

$5-ioo 

$2.980 

Sugar,  per  pound.  . 

.  190 

.  140 

.050 

.090 

Coffee,  per  pound.  . 

.740 

.180 

.200 

*.020 

Beans,  per  pound.  . 

.500 

.380 

.500 

*.  120 

Rice,  per  pound.  .  . 

•085 

.063 

•055 

.008 

Lard,  per  pound.  .  . 

.18 

•135 

.060 

•075 

Ham,  per  pound.  .  . 

•3° 

.225 

.114 

•1*5 

Cheese,  per  pound  . 

•25 

.I87 

.  IOO 

.087 

There  is  nothing  in  these  tables  to  indicate  that 
the  wage  earner  is  better  off  in  Mexico,  with  its  free 
silver,  than  in  the  United  States,  on  a  gold  basis; 
but  there  is  everything  to  indicate  that  his  condition 
is  much  less  favorable  ;  which  condition  is  generally 
admitted,  whatever  may  be  its  cause. 

If  there  is  need  of  more  money  in  circulation, 
there  are  plenty  of  ways  to  obtain  the  increase  with- 
out resorting  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver. 

Since  January  i,  1879,  *-he  greenback  notes  of  the 
Government  have  circulated  at  par  with  gold,  upon 
a  reserve  of  about  one-third  metal.  In  this  way  all 
the  people  of  the  country  have  shared  alike  in  the 
gain  arising  from  issuing  non-interest  bearing  obli- 
gations in  excess  of  the  reserve.  Had  the  green- 


16 


*  In  favor  of  Mexico. 


242   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

backs  been  redeemed  and  retired  at  that  time,  in- 
stead  of  retained  in  circulation,  an  additional  issue 
of  about  $250,000,000  four  per  cent  bonds  at  par 
would  have  been  required,  the  interest  on  which 
would  have  been  $10,000,000  per  annum  — which  in- 
terest has  been  saved  every  year  to  all  the  people  of 
the  country  alike  ;  and  the  saving  is  still  going  on. 
Meanwhile,  the  issue  of  these  notes  has  been  supple- 
mented by  that  of  National  banks,  issued  by  permis- 
sion of  the  Government  to  90  per  cent  of  the  face 
value  of  United  States  bonds,  furnished  as  collateral 
therefor.  If  more  circulation  is  needed,  additional 
greenbacks  may  be  issued  upon  a  like  reserve,  or 
new  banks  can  at  any  time  be  organized  for  that  pur- 
pose, under  conditions  like  those  in  existence,  or,  to 
further  increase  the  note  circulation,  it  may  be 
advisable  to  permit  the  issue  of  notes  to  the  face 
value  of  the  security  bonds.  This  would  at  once  in- 
sure an  increase  of  1 1  per  cent  of  the  existing  amount 
of  the  notes  outstanding,  and  ultimately  would,  per- 
haps, tempt  capital  into  the  organization  of  more 
note  issuing  banks.  This  plan  would  be  an  entirely 
safe  one  for  the  note-holder,  and  should  give  addi- 
tional circulation,  perhaps  all  that  will  be  needed, 
until  the  bonds  mature  or  are  paid  off,  when  other 
plans  may  become  imperative. 

Any  other  scheme  to  increase  the  issue  of  credit 
paper  money  should  receive  the  most  careful  scru- 
tiny, lest  in  avoiding  certain  admitted  defects  in  the 
present  system  the  country  be  led  into  a  quagmire 


THE    SILVER    QUESTION.  243 

of  depreciated  paper  money.  Every  dollar  of  paper 
in  circulation  must  be  continued  redeemable  at  sight 
in  gold  coin  of  present  standard  weight,  or  its 
equivalent,  for  the  country  is  in  little  humor  for  even 
a  partial  return  to  the  red  dog  and  wildcat  circula- 
tion of  earlier  days. 


THE  SILVER  QUESTION. 


BY  K.  P.  BLAND. 

CHAIRMAN   COINAGE    COMMITTEE    FIFTY-THIRD   CONGRESS. 


FACTS  relating  to  the  discussion  of  the  silver 
question  have  accumulated  rapidly  in  the  past 
eighteen  months. 

The  suspension  of  the  free  coinage  of  silver  in 
India,  June,  1893,  the  repeal  of  the  Sherman  Law  in 
November  of  the  same  year,  in  this  country,  the 
struggle  of  Austria  to  accumulate  gold  preparatory 
to  entering  the  list  of  single  gold  standard  countries, 
has  had  the  effect  of  depressing  prices  everywhere 
and  bringing  the  people  of  all  gold  standard  countries 
to  the  verge  of  bankruptcy  and  despair.  What  can 
be  said  of  the  gold  prophets  of  1893,  who,  clamoring 
for  the  repeal  of  the  purchase  clause  of  the  Sherman 
Act,  declared  that  this  law  alone  stood  in  the  way  of 
business  revival  and  prosperity  in  this  country  ?  We 
were  told  that  the  repeal  of  the  purchasing  clause  of 
this  act  would  at  once  cause  gold  to  flow  to  our  shores, 
would  stop  all  necessity  for  the  issuing  of  bonds  to 
get  gold  for  redemption  purposes. 

Congress  was  by  these  arguments  and  promises 
induced  to  repeal  the  act. 


Engraved  for  PractiYal  Book  for  Practical  Pooplt. 


THE   SILVER  QUESTION.  245 

The  President  refused  to  sign  the  seigniorage  bill 
for  the  same  reasons.  Yet,  in  a  few  months  after 
the  repeal  of  the  Sherman  Act,  we  issued  fifty  mil- 
lions of  bonds  to  replenish  the  gold  reserve,  and  in  a 
short  time  after  the  veto  of  seigniorage  bill  fifty 
millions  more  of  bonds  were  issued  for  the  purchase 
of  gold, 

The  gold  thus  procured  is  taken  from  the  Treasury 
almost  as  fast  as  it  is  paid  in. 

The  fault  of  the  Sherman  Law,  in  dealing  with 
the  question  of  redemption  of  the  notes  issued 
in  the  purchase  of  the  bullion,  was  in  giving  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  the  power  to  redeem  in 
gold. 

Had  the  law  compelled  the  coinage  of  the  bullion 
and  the  redemption  of  the  notes  in  the  coin  struck 
from  the  bullion,  there  never  would  have  been  occa- 
sion for  bond  issues.  During  the  time  we  purchased 
silver,  and  the  law  of  February  28,  1878,  which  law 
compelled  the  coinage  of  the  bullion  as  fast  as  it  was 
purchased  and  compelled  the  redemption  of  the  silver 
certificates  issued  on  the  coin  in  silver  dollars,  we 
were  constantly  increasing  our  gold  supply.  From 
1878  to  1888  we  imported  $132,000,000  more  gold 
than  we  exported. 

In  1890  the  Sherman  Law  was  passed  and  after 
its  passage  the  Treasury  notes  issued  in  the  pur- 
chase of  the  bullion  were  redeemed  in  gold  instead 
of  silver  as  under  the  old  law  From  that  time  our 
export  of  gold  greatly  increased. 


246   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

The  Sherman  Law  declared  to  the  world  that  we 
proposed  to  redeem  our  currency  in  gold.  This 
meant  the  single  gold  standard  and  gave  the  world 
notice  that  there  was  to  be  a  war  for  gold,  and  hence 
other  countries,  in  order  to  strengthen  themselves, 
began  bidding  for  gold. 

The  repeal  of  the  purchase  clause  only  of  the 
Sherman  Law,  leaving  the  gold  redemption  part  in 
force,  was  regarded  as  a  distinct  blow  at  silver  and  an 
evident  purpose  on  our  part  to  strike  down  silver,  a 
warning  of  a  still  greater  demand  for  gold.  This 
caused  an  immediate  scramble  for  gold  for  India, 
Austria  and  other  countries.  Thus  it  is  that  the  sin- 
gle gold  standard  is  daily  driving  gold  up  and,  what 
is  the  same  thing  in  meaning,  prices  down. 

The  day  of  low  prices,  hard  times  and  general  con- 
fiscation is  upon  us,  and  is  here  to  stay  until  the 
people  by  hard  necessity  are  made  to  realize  that 
bank  notes  are  not  money  ;  that  nothing  but  legal 
tender  is  in  the  true  sense  money. 

That  gold  is  the  sole  measure  of  values,  and  this 
measure  of  all  values  is  itself  constantly  increasing 
by  the  action  of  the  nations  displacing  silver  as  the 
coequal  of  gold  in  measurement  of  values.  Cut  off 
one-half  of  the  money  of  ultimate  redemption  and 
all  products  must  shrink  one-half  in  money  value. 
The  remedy  is  plain. 

Restore  the  old  bi-metallic  standard  that  existed 
for  eighty  years  in  our  history.  This  standard  made 
the  silver  dollar,  as  now  coined  in  pure  silver,  the 


THE   SILVER   QUESTION.  247 

unit  of  account  or  value.  There  is  no  other  mode 
of  redress.  Coin  the  silver  and  gold  freely  at  our 
own  mints.  Let  gold  and  silver  certificates  take  the 
place  of  other  form  of  money.  The  two  coins  will 
be  a  basis  for  our  currency,  and  the  supply  will  be 
ample  for  all  business  purposes. 

But  we  are  told  the  two  coins,  gold  and  silver, 
would  not  circulate  together. 

The  answer  is,  they  now  circulate  side  by  side. 

Again,  it  is  said  this  is  so  because  we  have  limited 
the  coinage  of  silver. 

It  was  claimed  by  Mr.  Sherman,  when  he  was 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  when  we  had  coined 
but  fifty  millions  of  silver  dollars,  that  this  amount 
was  all  the  country  could  absorb  at  a  parity  with 
gold. 

Still  we  coined  silver  until  we  now  have  four  hun- 
dred and  twenty  millions,  all  at  a  par  with  gold. 

Why  should  those  people  who  decry  silver  as 
cheap  money  now  show  a  hasty  determination  to 
authorize  an  unlimited  amount  of  bank  paper  in- 
trinsically worth  nothing? 

Is  it  because  the  plan  of  putting  the  control  of  the 
volume  of  money  in  the  keeping  of  corporate  wealth 
is  more  favorable  to  the  masses  of  the  people  than 
to  permit  the  people  themselves,  through  the  laws 
of  nature  and  the  demands  of  business  and  trade,  to 
supply  the  volume  of  money  by  the  use  of  the  gov- 
ernment mints  ? 


248   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Must  a  government  tf  of  the  people,  by  the  people  and 
for  the  people "  surrender  its  prerogative  of  issuing 
money  to  a  monopoly  ? 

Surely,  if  the  demand  for  money  will  be  sufficient 
to  float  an  unlimited  issue  of  bank  paper  at  par  with 
gold,  the  same  demand  will  keep  at  par  all  the  silver 
that  will  come  to  us. 

The  parity  can  be  attended  to  by  reducing  the 
metal  in  the  coin  that  goes  to  a  premium  or  is 
hoarded.  There  need  be  no  apprehension  as  to 
that. 

Silver  has  been  depreciated  as  compared  to  gold 
by  the  disuse  of  silver  as  standard  money,  and  the 
whole  strain  of  ultimate  redemption  put  on  gold  alone. 
The  restoration  of  silver  will  bring  gold  down  to  its 
proper  level  without  any  change  of  ratio. 

The  British  Royal  Commission  of  1887,  paragraphs 
192-3-4  of  its  report,  states  the  principal  and  hist- 
orical fact  of  the  Latin  Union  maintaining  the  parity 
of  the  two  metals  as  follows  : 

192.  These  considerations  seem  to  suggest  the 
existence  of  some  steadying  influence  in  former  per- 
iods, which  has  now  been  removed,  and  which  has 
left  the  silver  market  subject  to  the  free  influence 
of  causes,  the  full  effect  of  which  was  previously  kept 
in  check. 

The  question  therefore  forces  itself  upon  us  :  Is 
there  any  other  circumstance  calculated  to  affect  the 
relation  of  silver  to  gold  which  distinguishes  the  later 
period  from  the  earlier  ? 


THE   SILVER    QUESTION.  249 

Now,  undoubtedly  the  date  which  forms  the  divid- 
ing line  between  an  epoch  of  approximate  fixity  in 
the  relative  value  of  gold  and  silver  and  one  of 
marked  instability  is  the  year  when  the  bimetallic 
system  which  had  previously  been  in  force  in  the 
Latin  Union  ceased  to  be  in  full  operation  ;  and  we 
are  irresistibly  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  opera- 
tion of  that  system,  established  as  it  was  in  countries 
the  population  and  commerce  of  which  were  consid- 
erable, exerted  a  material  influence  upon  the  relative 
value  of  the  two  metals. 

So  long  as  that  system  was  in  force  we  think  that, 
notwithstanding  the  changes  in  the  production  and 
use  of  the  precious  metals,  it  kept  the  market  price 
of  silver  approximately  steady  at  the  ratio  fixed  by 
law  between  them,  namely  fifteen  and  one-half  to  one. 

When  once  the  conclusion  is  arrived  at  that  this 
was  the  case,  the  circumstances  on  which  we  have 
dwelt  as  characterizing  the  period  since  1873  appear 
amply  sufficient  to  account  for  the  fall  in  the  price  of 
silver,  tending  as  they  all  do  in  that  direction  ;  and 
the  fact  that  on  any  particular  day  the  supply  of  sil- 
ver and  of  council  bills  may  be  large  while  the  need 
for  remittances  is  small,  and  vice  versa,  would  ex- 
plain the  constant  fluctuations  in  the  price  of  silver 
which  have  manifested  themselves  in  recent  years. 

193.  Nor  does  it  appear  to  us  a  priori  unreason- 
able to  suppose  that  the  existence  in  the  Latin  Union 
of  a  bimetallic  system  with  a  ratio  of  fifteen  and  one- 
half  to  one  fixed  between  the  two  metals  should 


250   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

have  been  capable  of  keeping  the  market  price  of 
silver  steady  at  approximately  that  ratio. 

The  view  that  it  could  only  affect  the  market  price 
to  the  extent  to  which  there  was  a  demand  for  it  for 
currency  purposes  in  the  Latin  Union,  or  to  which 
it  was  actually  taken  to  the  mints  of  those  countries 
is,  we  think,  fallacious. 

The  fact  that  the  owner  of  silver  could,  in  the  last 
resort,  take  it  to  those  mints  and  have  it  converted 
into  coin,  which  would  purchase  commodities  at  the 
ratio  of  fifteen  and  one-half  of  silver  to  one  of  gold, 
would,  in  our  opinion,  be  likely  to  affect  the  price  of 
silver  in  the  market  generally,  whoever  the  purchaser 
and  for  whatever  country  it  was  destined.  It  would 
enable  the  seller  to  stand  out  for  a  price  approximat- 
ing to  the  legal  ratio,  and  would  tend  to  keep  the 
market  steady  at  about  that  point. 

194.  It  has  been  urged  that  during  the  earlier  of 
the  two  periods,  which  we  have  been  contrasting,  the 
conditions  which  existed  from  time  to  time  were  fav- 
orable to  the  maintenance  of  the  legal  ratio  ;  that 
the  great  influx  of  gold  towards  the  middle  of  this 
century  found  France  with  a  large  stock  of  silver, 
and  that  this  silver,  owing  to  exceptional  circum- 
stances, had  a  ready  outlet  to  India. 

But  we  do  not  think  this  affords  an  adequate  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  without  taking  into  account  the 
existence  of  the  bimetallic  system.  It  may  be  true 
that  the  circumstances  referred  to  were  conditions 
which  helped  to  make  the  bimetallic  system  opera- 


THE   SILVER   QUESTION. 

tive.  But,  as  we  have  observed  before,  circumstances 
and  conditions  of  a  like  nature  have  been  more  or 
less  operative  both  before  and  since  1873,  and  yet 
the  effect  on  the  relative  value  of  the  two  metals 
has  been  very  different. 

The  fact  that  France  is  practically  the  Latin  Union 
is  proof  of  the  contention  that  this  country  is  able 
to  coin  gold  and  silver  free  and  at  a  parity  at  our 
present  ratio. 

Our  wealth,  commercial  power,  population  and 
territory,  are  vastly  greater  than  that  of  France,  or 
the  Latin  Union,  and  to  be  within  the  lines  of  con- 
servatism you  might  throw  in  England  or  Germany. 

Indeed,  our  power  for  development  and  use  of 
money  is  probably  greater  than  all  western  Europe ; 
yet  we  are  asked  to  plead  the  "  baby  act,"  and  beg 
other  countries  to  assist  us  in  restoring  silver. 

We  are  again  reminded  that  the  free  coinage  of 
the  Mexican  dollar  in  Mexico  does  not  place  silver 
at  par  with  gold.  The  answer  is,  that  Mexico  is  not 
a  great  commercial  power  such  as  this  country  or 
France. 

It  was  a  country  or  countries  of  considerable  com- 
mercial power  that  the  British  Royal  Commission 
unanimously  agreed  could  maintain  the  relative  value 
of  the  two  metals  at  a  ratio  of  15^  to  i.  Still  should 
Mexico  cease  to  coin  silver  and  attempt  to  adopt  the 
gold  standard,  the  fall  in  silver  or  the  rise  in  gold 
would  be  augmented. 


252   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Walter  Bagehot  in  his  work,  "  Lombard  Street," 
page  142,  says  : 

"After  a  commercial  crisis  --  1866,  for  example  — 
two  things  happen:  first,  we  call  in  the  debts  which 
are  owing  to  us  in  other  countries;  and  we  require 
these  debts  to  be  paid  to  us,  not  in  commodities,  but 
in  money."  Thus  it  is  that  Great  Britain,  a  creditor 
nation,  having  ten  billions  of  money  due  her  in  for- 
eign counties,  more  than  one-third  of  it  due  from  us, 
is  enabled  when  the  pressure  requires  it  or  for  any 
purpose  of  her  own,  can  drain  us  of  all  our  gold  at 
will.  She  will  demand  money  in  a  pinch  and  not 
commodities. 

Both  money  and  commodities  have  been  demanded 
by  her  since  the  panic  in  Australia  and  the  failure  of 
Barring  Brothers. 

The  stress  of  hard  times  in  Europe  has  caused  to 
a  great  extent  the  flow  of  our  gold  there.  The 
drain  will  go  when  the  pressure  comes. 

The  effect  of  free  coinage  of  silver  will  be  to  re- 
plenish our  lost  gold  currency  by  the  free  use  of  sil- 
ver and  thus  prevent  the  European  gold  standard 
panics  and  hard  times  from  reacting  on  us. 

Bank  notes  will  not  answer,  for  they  are  a  mere 
credit  currency  and  not  money  of  redemption. 

When  gold  goes  this  credit  money  must  go  with 
it.  Must  shrink  or  contract  as  the  foundation  for 
redemption  is  removed  or  narrowed. 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  People. 


ORATION  ON  CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS. 


BY  CHAUNCEY  M.  DEPEW,  L.L.  D. 


PROBABLY  no  man  in  the  United  States  is  better  known 
throughout  the  world  than  the  Hon.  Chauncey  M.  Depew, 
president  of  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  Rail- 
road Company.     He  is  not  only  a  trained  lawyer —  eminent  in  his 
profession  —a  wise  and    sagacious   statesman,  but  an  orator  of 
world-wide  fame. 

The  publishers  have  been  accorded  by  Dr.  Depew  the  privilege 
of  publishing  for  the  first  time  in  this  work  the  full  text  of  his 
oration  delivered  at  the  unveiling  of  the  Christopher  Columbus 
Statue  in  Central  Park,  New  York,  May  12,  1894.  As  an  historical 
exposition  illustrative  of  the  marvelous  progress  of  civilization, 
wherein  our  country  has  been  immeasurably  blessed  and  mankind 
glorified,  it  is  an  eloquent  and  most  instructive  discourse.  As  an 
analysis  of  the  great  discoverer  and  the  prodigious  forces,  we  may 
almost  say  the  divine  inspirations,  that  controlled  his  motives  and 
directed  his  actions,  Dr.  Depew's  oration  may  be  regarded  as  a 
masterpiece. 


New  York  can  add  nothing  to  the  glory  of  Col- 
umbus, but  she  may  enforce  the  lesson  of  his  life 
and  discovery.  The  fire  kindled  by  him  on  a  little 
island  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  amid  the  dark- 


254   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

ness  of  the  fifteenth  century,  has  become  the  flame 
which  illumines  the  nineteenth  with  light  and  liberty. 
Seed  time  and  harvest  have  their  soil  and  seasons 
with  humanity  as  with  the  earth.  In  all  ages  and 
among  all  races,  the  winds  and  the  waves  have  borne 
the  kernels  of  truth,  and  they  have  been  lost  on  the 
rocks  and  in  the  waters.  There  were  patriots  before 
Runnymede,  but  their  blood  fertilized  that  field  for 
Magna  Charta.  Patriots  had  labored  and  died  in 
vain  before  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in  1776. 
German  Federation  had  been  a  Teutonic  dream  for 
two  thousand  years  before  Bismarck.  Italian  unity 
was  the  hope  of  Italy  for  centuries  before  Garibaldi, 
Mazzini  and  Cavour.  The  French  Republic  was  the 
effort  and  aspiration  of  the  best  thinkers  and  boldest 
actors  of  France  for  a  hundred  years  before  Thiers 
and  Gambetta.  The  Viking  sailed  along  the  coast 
of  North  America,  and  planted  colonies  upon  its 
shores  five  hundred  years  before  Columbus.  But 
the  time  was  not  ripe,  and  the  people  of  Europe 
were  not  prepared  for  America  and  its  opportunities. 
The  brilliant  and  liberal  reign  of  Lorenzo,  the 
Magnificent,  at  Florence,  which  closed  as  Columbus 
sailed  from  Palos,  had  stimulated  commerce,  art  and 
learning.  It  had  both  awakened  and  opened  the 
mind  in  every  country  on  the  continent.  The  liter- 
ary treasures  of  the  great  library  of  the  Vatican  were 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  scholars,  and  the  revival  of 
learning  was  a  marked  feature  of  the  period.  The 
expulsion  of  the  Moslems  from  Spain  had  relieved 


ORATION    ON    CHRISTOPHER   COLUMBUS.  255 

Europe  of  the  strain  of  warring  creeds.  Intense  in- 
tellectual activity  was  breaking  the  bonds  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  preparing  the  way  for  independent 
thought  and  discovery.  The  statesmanship  and  the 
guile  of  Louis  the  Eleventh  in  France,  and  the  con- 
centration of  power  in  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in 
Spain,  had  broken  down  feudalism  and  centralized 
authority.  The  road  from  the  dismantled  castles 
of  the  Barons,  to  the  royal  palace,  and  from  the 
royal  palace,  to  the  representative  assembly  of 
the  people,  became  the  highway  of  liberty.  These 
wonderful  and  revolutionary  events  were  for  a  time, 
the  blessings  only  of  the  favored  few,  the  great  and 
the  learned. 

It  was  reserved  not  for  kings  or  nobles  or  the 
mighty  of  earth  to  utilize  the  past  and  present  for 
the  uplifting  of  the  masses  of  mankind.  We  may 
say  reverently,  as  Christianity  came  for  us  through 
the  son  of  a  carpenter,  so  the  invention  which  opened 
the  way  for  christianizing  the  world  was  wrought  out 
by  a  humble  artisan  of  Mayence.  The  significance 
of  types,  and  the  prophecy  of  their  use,  were  made 
clear  in  the  selection  of  the  Bible  as  their  first  work. 
The  printing  press  of  Guttenberg,  and  the  invention 
of  paper  which  had  preceded  it  only  a  few  years, 
were  the  levers  and  the  levelers  of  the  future.  By 
bringing  education  within  the  reach  of  all,  they  ele- 
vated the  people  to  the  understanding  and  practice 
of  liberty;  and  equal  opportunity  and  rights  battered 
down  privilege  and  caste. 


256   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Incidents,  which  to  the  pious  are  special  provi- 
dences, and  to  others  trifling  accidents,  have  often 
altered  the  course  of  history.  The  marriage  of  Isa- 
bella with  Ferdinand,  enabled  a  liberal  and  generous 
mind  to  influence  a  bigoted  and  miserly  one  for  the 
venture,  certainly  rash,  perhaps  blasphemous,  into 
the  unknown  West ;  and  made  possible  the  voyage 
of  Columbus.  A  hungry  boy,  stopped  his  proud  and 
mendicant  father  at  the  door  of  the  convent  of  La 
Rabida,  to  meet  there  in  the  person  of  the  Prior,  the 
enlightened,  and  learned  Father  Juan  Perega,  the 
Confessor  of  the  Queen,  the  only  man  living  who 
had  both  the  breadth  and  independence  to  under- 
stand and  believe  in  the  plans  of  the  great  navigator, 
and  also  the  confidence  of  her  Majesty.  It  was  a 
flight  of  birds  which  changed  the  course  of  the  Santa 
Maria  and  her  consorts,  and  gave  South  America  to 
Spain  and  Portugal,  and  the  dominant  power  on  the 
Northern  Continent  to  the  Saxon  race.  Thus,  the 
United  States,  as  distinguished  from  the  Spanish 
Republics  and  the  Portugese  Empire  and  subsequent 
Republic  of  Brazil,  is  apparently  an  accident  of  an 
accident.  It  is  really  the  result  of  climate  and  con- 
ditions suited  to  the  development  of  that  resistless 
strain  in  the  blood,  which  circles  the  globe  with  its 
conquests,  and,  blended  with  Teuton  and  Celt,  with 
Latin  and  Scandinavian,  increases  the  power  and  the 
promise  of  our  country. 

Ferdinand  was  a  typical  representative  of  his  times. 
We  must  judge  the  men  of  every  period  by  their 


ORATION    ON    CHRISTOPHER    COLUMBUS.  257 

standards,  not  ours.  Only  fools  are  offended  at 
criticisms  of  the  State  or  Church  of  the  dark  ages, 
and  only  the  ignorant  claim  that  either  was  so 
abreast  with  the  thought  or  education  of  to-day  that 
their  substitution  for  present  conditions  would  re- 
ceive now  either  welcome  or  hospitality.  The  King 
believed  the  torture  chamber  better  than  Courts  of 
Justice.  He  knew  of  no  law  which  was  superior  to 
his  autocratic  will.  He  was  frugal  to  meanness,  and 
devoid  of  generosity  or  integrity.  He  laughed  at 
Columbus  when  the  great  navigator  was  pleading 
for  the  ships  to  find  for  him  an  empire,  and  he 
cheated  the  dying  hero  of  the  rewards  he  promised, 
and  the  honors  he  had  pledged,  when  the  empire 
was  won.  To  Isabella  had  been  wafted  across  space 
a  breath  of  the  purer  air  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
When  we  consider  what  she  was,  in  spite  of  the 
almost  insufferable  barriers  of  her  environment,  a 
sweet  and  mighty  spirit  seems  to  have  escaped  from 
the  bondage  of  the  age,  and,  in  the  beautiful  pres- 
ence of  the  Queen,  inspired  the  soul  of  a  saint  and 
prophetess.  She  gave  her  jewels  for  the  fleet,  and 
with  undimmed  faith  waited  for  the  return  which 
ended  in  triumphal  processions  and  royal  greetings. 
She  struck  the  shackles  from  the  Indian  slaves  which 
were  brought  her  as  part  of  the  booty  of  the  New 
World,  and  issued  stern  decrees  against  cruelty  and 
lust ;  but  they  were  nullified  by  her  untimely  death,  and 
myriads  of  innocent  men,  women  and  children  were 
consigned  to  nameless  horrors  and  final  extermination. 


258   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

This  favored  land  recognizes  its  obligations  to  its 
benefactress,  in  granting  to  woman  privileges  and 
opportunities  unknown  in  other  countries.  It  gives 
to  her  independence  and  control  in  her  property.  It 
opens  for  her  the  academy  and  the  university,  and  it 
yields  to  her  a  precedence  and  power  at  home  and 
in  society,  and  puts  within  her  grasp  the  substance 
of  rights  which  in  the  boasted  age  of  chivalry  were 
only  a  flowery  and  pretentious  sham. 

Columbus  was  of  that  rare  type  of  genius  which 
belongs  to  no  age,  and  rises  above  the  errors,  or 
superstitions,  or  ignorance  of  his  period.  While 
most  of  the  learned,  and  all  the  unlearned,  believed 
the  earth  to  be  flat,  he  'boldly  proclaimed  its  spheri- 
city ;  while  the  same  overwhelming  majority  feared 
the  monsters  of  the  deep,  who  were  waiting  beyond 
the  western  horizon  to  devour  the  daring  and  sacre- 
ligious  mariners  and  destroy  their  ships,  he  saw  on 
the  other  side  of  the  unknown  sea,  limitless  empire 
for  his  sovereigns,  and  myriads  of  souls  for  the  sav- 
ing offices  of  his  Church.  He  had  sailed  to  the 
farthest  limits  of  the  discoveries  of  the  times.  He 
had  investigated  with  unprejudiced  and  unclouded 
mind  the  evidences  cast  up  from  the  ocean  of  other 
lands  and  strange  peoples.  As  sailor,  privateer  and 
pirate,  he  had  experienced  the  dangers  of  hostile 
elements  and  armed  enemies.  As  geographer  and 
mapmaker,  he  had  absorbed  all  the  teachings  of  the 
past,  and  boldly  placed  upon  his  maps  the  new  con- 
tinent with  its  untold  wealth  of  gold  and  precious 


ORATION    ON    CHRISTOPHER   COLUMBUS.  259 

stones,  and  its  unequalled  opportunities  for  the 
power  and  greatness  of  the  throne  which  would 
grant  him  the  facilities  of  his  voyage.  The  con- 
quest of  Grenada  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors 
from  Spain  seemed  to  the  statesmen  of  Europe  an 
event  of  transcendant  importance,  but  to  this  superb 
enthusiast  it  was  a  local  affair  which  delayed  the 
plans  for  the  capture  of  a  continent 

The  spiritual  and  temporal  power,  the  pomp  and 
pageantry  of  Castile  and  Aragon,  formed  an  array 
unequalled  in  the  brilliancy  of  its  King  and  Queen, 
its  prelates  and  statesmen,  its  philosophers  and 
soldiers,  and  in  the  splendor  of  their  equipment,  to 
receive  from  Boabdil  the  keys  of  his  capital  and  the 
capitulation  of  his  kingdom.  The  enthusiasm  of 
the  hour  lifted  the  Spanish  hosts  to  heavenly 
ecstacy,  all  save  one.  This  proud  pauper,  the 
royal  purple  of  his  imagination  giving  dignity  to  his 
rags  and  majesty  to  his  mein,  looked  coldly  upon 
the  splendid  spectacle.  To  the  man  who  waited  for 
years,  because  he  would  accept  no  other  terms  with 
his  fleet  than  the  Admiralty  of  the  Ocean,  the  Vice 
Royalty  of  the  Indies  and  one-tenth  the  revenues  of 
the  Western  Hemisphere,  the  martial  field  before 
him  was  only  a  skirmish  on  the  battle  line  of  the 
universe. 

The  faults  of  Columbus  were  the  results  of  the 
civilization  and  conditions  of  his  times,  from  which 
no  man  is  great  enough  to  wholly  escape,  but  his 
faith  was  his  own.  After  the  lapse  of  four  hun- 


260   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

dred  years  it  is  as  impressive  to  us  as  it  was  potent 
with  his  contemporaries.  It  gave  immortality  to  the 
humble  Convent  of  La  Rabida  and  its  noble  prior. 
It  clarified  the  atmosphere  and  dispelled  the  dark- 
ness about  Isabella,  so  that  she  could  grasp  the  great 
truth.  It  calmed  the  fears  and  quelled  the  mutiny 
of  the  crew,  and  found  its  reward  in  the  glimmering 
light  on  San  Salvador,  which  for  the  sailors  meant 
land  at  last,  and  for  the  Admiral,  the  New  World, 
of  which  he  had  dreamed,  for  which  he  had  suffered, 
and  now,  after  discouragements  and  perils  innumer- 
able, had  discovered. 

In  1492,  was  issued  the  cruel  edict  which  con- 
fiscated the  property  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
Jews,  and  then  expelled  them  from  Spain.  In  the 
same  year  the  same  sovereigns  equipped  the  fleet 
of  Columbus  for  its  immortal  voyage.  The  un- 
happy and  unfortunate  Hebrews  were  landed  upon 
the  shores  of  Asia  and  Africa,  but  nowhere  did 
they  receive  either  welcome  or  hospitality.  The 
little  ships  of  Columbus  as  they  sailed  out  of  the 
harbor  of  Palos  passed  the  greater  war  vessels  which 
were  carrying  these  captive  Israelites  from  their 
homes.  The  royal  frigates  were  bearing  them  to 
fresh  horrors  and  persecutions,  but  the  weak  and 
deckless  caravals  of  the  discoverer  were,  unknown 
to  sovereign  or  servant,  guided  by  Divine  Provi- 
dence to  the  land  where  all  creeds  and  all  races 
should  dwell  in  the  harmony  of  equal  rights,  and 


ORATION    ON    CHRISTOPHER   COLUMBUS.  261 

unite  in  contributing  to  the  power  and  glory  of  a 
government  of  organized  liberty. 

The  inspiring  dream  of  Columbus  was  to  utilize 
the  treasures  of  the  New  World  for  the  redemption 
from  the  infidel  of  the  holy  sepulchre  at  Jerusalem. 
He  believed  that  by  virtue  of  his  name,  Christopher, 
he  was  carrying  Christ  across  the  sea  to  the  heathen. 
The  lust  for  gold  made  his  followers  profane  the 
name  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  with  such  outrages 
and  cruelties,  such  torturings  and  massacres  of  the 
confiding  aborigines,  as  caused  even  the  fifteenth 
century  to  shudder.  He  died,  with  his  dream  of  the 
rescue  of  the  tomb  of  the  Saviour  still  a  vision.  He 
little  knew,  as  he  lay  helpless  amidst  the  ruin  of  his 
hopes,  that  though  he  had  lost  an  empty  grave,  he 
had  found  a  perpetual  asylum  for  conscience.  He 
could  not  foresee  that  while  in  their  savage  greed 
those  with  him  and  those  who  came  after,  gave  to 
the  Indians,  not  the  light  of  truth,  but  consigned 
them  to  the  flames,  and  brought  to  them,  not  the 
gospel  of  love,  but  fell  upon  them  with  sword  and 
spear,  yet  the  country  he  discovered  would  be  the 
bulwark  and  hope  of  the  Church. 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers  fled  from  persecution  in  Eng- 
land to  religious  liberty  in  Massachusetts.  The 
Highlanders  who  fought  for  Prince  Charles  Edward 
Stuart,  found  refuge  in  North  Carolina.  The 
Quakers,  to  be  free  from  their  tormentors,  sailed  to 
Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  and  they  received  there 
with  open  arms  the  Germans  driven  from  the  Pala- 


262   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

tinate  by  Louis  the  Fourteenth.  The  Huguenots, 
escaping  from  France  after  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes,  built  happy  homes  on  the  Hudson 
and  under  the  shelter  of  the  groves  of  South  Carolina. 
Ogelthorpe  led  the  Teutons,  seeking  an  opportunity 
to  worship  God  according  to  their  lights,  from  Salz- 
burg to  Georgia.  Irishmen,  saved  from  the  merci- 
less conquests  of  Cromwell,  scattered  all  over  the 
land  to  consecrate  their  altars  and  enjoy  in  safety 
their  religion.  Dutch  Protestants  came  to  New 
York,  Swedish  Protestants  to  Delaware,  English 
Catholics  to  Maryland  and  the  English  Church 
Cavaliers  to  Virginia.  The  best  contribution  of 
Columbus  to  future  generations  was  a  continent  for 
the  cultivation  of  civil  and  religious  liberty.  A  State 
built  upon  the  individual  and  not  upon  classes  or 
creeds  is  the  source  and  strength  of  American 
freedom. 

It  was  the  supreme  good  fortune  of  the  United  States 
that  for  its  first  settlers  the  conditions  of  existence 
were  labor,  temperance  and  thrift.  The  hostile  sav- 
ages, the  rigors  of  the  climate,  the  virgin  forests  and 
the  resisting  soil  demanded  the  indomitable  energy  and 
dauntless  courage  which  fashion  heroes  and  patriots. 
Had  there  been  gold  mines  in  New  England,  New 
York  and  Virginia  to  excite  the  cupidity  of  kings  and 
tempt  the  adventurers  of  Europe,  and  to  demoralize 
the  inhabitants  of  the  colonies,  and  take  them 
from  their  homes  and  their  churches  to  the  feverish 
excitement  of  mining  camps,  there  would  have  been 


ORATION    ON    CHRISTOPHER    COLUMBUS.  263 

little  permanent  settlement  or  public  sentiment. 
The  farms  on  the  bleak  hillsides  of  Connecticut 
and  Massachusetts,  in  the  Mohawk  Valley,  along  the 
Delaware  and  on  the  James,  were  fountains  of 
national  virtue  and  springs  of  free  thought  and  free 
speech.  It  was  the  training  and  experience  of 
necessity  which  opened  the  avenues  of  opportunity 
for  the  people  of  North  America.  It  enabled  the 
" embattled  farmer"  at  Concord  and  Lexington  to 
face  the  veterans  of  European  battlefields.  It 
nerved  the  members  of  the  Continental  Congress  to 
brave  the  terrors  of  treason,  and  confiscation  and 
death,  by  their  bold  and  clear  signatures  to  the  De- 
claration of  Independence.  It  reared  and  trained  a 
race  who  could  rescind  slavery,  though  it  was  inter- 
woven with  their  political  system  from  foundation  to 
turret,  and  after  bloody  battles  between  those  who 
upheld  the  one  side  and  those  who  favored  the  other, 
could  reunite  them  to  labor  harmoniously  for  the 
welfare  and  strength  of  the  purified  Republic. 

The  Columbian  idea  of  discovery  was  to  find  a 
land  where  gold  could  be  mined  from  exhaustless 
stores,  a  land  flowing  with  rivers  of  diamonds  and 
precious  stones.  Limitless  wealth,  easily  acquired, 
was  to  enrich,  beyond  the  dreams  of  avarice,  the  sov- 
ereigns and  people  of  Spain.  He  had  no  conception 
of  the  adventurous  pioneer  and  thrifty  emigrant. 
The  bell-crowned  Pilgrims,  landing  on  Plymouth 
Rock  in  midwinter  with  no  other  purpose  than  to 
found  a  State  for  the  enjoyment  by  all  of  just  and 


264   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

equal  laws,  would  have  aroused  his  wonder  and  con- 
tempt. The  imagination  cannot  picture  his  amaze- 
ment could  he  have  foreseen  the  marvelous  results 
of  the  Mayflower's  voyage.  The  wealth  poured  in 
such  abundant  measure  from  the  mines  in  the  New 
World  into  the  treasury  of  Spain  was  a  potent 
factor  in  the  fall  of  her  power  and  prestige  in  Europe. 

The  founders  of  our  Republic  welcomed  with  cor- 
dial hospitality  all  who  came  to  escape  from  oppres- 
sion or  better  their  condition.  The  immigrants,  who 
accepted  the  invitation  and  landed  by  millions  on  our 
shores,  brought  the  qualities  and  purposes  which 
have  added  incalculably  to  the  wealth  and  glory  of 
our  country.  While  South  America  and  Mexico 
were  demoralizing  Europe  with  gold  and  silver, 
Europe  was  contributing  to  the  United  States  her 
farmers  and  artisans  to  gather  from  the  fruitful  earth 
and  produce  in  the  busy  factory  an  annual  and  ever 
increasing  volume  of  wealth  ;  wealth  which  enriches 
but  does  not  enervate,  which  stimulates  invention, 
promotes  progress,  founds  institutions  of  learning, 
builds  homes  for  the  many  and  increases  the  happi- 
ness of  all.  Four  centuries  separate  us  from  Colum- 
bus. Within  this  period  more  has  been  accomplished 
for  humanity  than  the  four  thousand  years  which 
preceded  him. 

We  are  here  to  erect  this  statue  to  his  memory, 
because  of  the  unnumbered  blessings  to  America, 
and  to  the  people  of  every  race  and  clime  which  have 
followed  his  discovery.  His  genius  and  faith  gave 


ORATION    ON    CHRISTOPHER   COLUMBUS.  265 

to  succeeding  generations  the  opportunity  for  life 
and  liberty.  We,  the  heirs  of  all  the  ages,  in  the  pleni- 
tude of  our  enjoyments,  and  the  prodigality  of  the 
favors  showered  upon  us,  hail  Columbus  —  the  hero 
and  benefactor. 


SUCCESS  IN  LIFE. 


BY  HENRY  W.  CURTIS, 

OK  HOENINGHAUS   ft   CURTISS,  SILK   IMPORTERS,  NEW   YORK  CITY. 


IF  there  is  one  thing  more  than  another  which  fills 
the  thought  of  every  young  man  and  woman  in 
the  land,  it  is  the  desire  to  make  a  success  in  life. 
No  one  is  worthy  to  be  called  a  man  or  woman  who 
is  not  energized  by  such  an  ambition.  If,  then,  the 
desire  is  universal,  surely  it  will  be  as  widely  inter- 
esting to  ask:  What  constitutes  true  success  ? 

One  could  not  help  being  struck  with  wonder  as 
he  stood  and  watched  the  almost  noiseless  workings 
of  the  great  engine  that  gave  life  and  action  to  every 
piece  of  mechanism  in  the  Machinery  Hall  at  our 
Columbian  Exposition,  or  restrain  the  thought  of 
what  a  mighty  power  was  gathered  as  from  the  water 
over  the  fire  was  generated  the  steam  that  seem- 
ingly so  easily  set  this  little  world  in  motion. 

Fire  was  the  inspiration  of  that  life.  So  the  fire 
in  our  hearts,  which  we  call  ambition,  keeps  the 
great  human  world  in  motion,  and  noiselessly  it  does 
its  work  with  such  poxver  as  to  move  with  its  impell- 
ing force  the  whole  family  on  earth.  How  import- 


SUCCESS   IN    LIFE.  267 

ant  it  is  that  this  motive  power  should  be  right,  for 
only  as  it  is  right  can  real  success  be  reached. 

That  life  is  not  a  real  success  which  finds  its  motive 
power  in  the  thought  that  money-getting  is  the  great 
object  in  life.  A  man  may  amass  the  wealth  of  a 
Vanderbilt  or  an  Astor,  and  yet  his  life  be  a  miser- 
able failure.  It  is  not  how  long  is  the  rent-roll  or 
how  big  the  vault  which  carries  our  earthly  treasures 
that  attest  the  victory  in  living.  Ah,  no,  it  rather:  As 
you  have  accumulated  money,  what  has  been  your 
thought  in  accumulating  it  ?  Has  it  been  that  you 
might  be  the  almoner  of  God's  bounty,  that  you 
might  help  and  relieve  those  about  you  less  fortu- 
nate than  yourself? 

If  your  only  motive  has  been  to  minister  to  your 
own  selfish  comfort  and  luxury  in  the  heaping  up  of 
gold,  with  none  to  call  you  blessed,  then  your  life,  I 
say,  is  a  miserable  failure.  Are  you  living  with  the 
one  thought  of  how  you  can  serve  your  selfish  ambi- 
tion and  rise  to  places  of  influence  simply  to  gratify 
a  selfish  greed  of  power?  Surely  such  a  life  none, 
judging  by  right  standards,  will  name  as  impelled  by 
proper  motives,  neither  can  it  be  called  in  any  sense 
successful.  Understand,  I  do  not  belittle  the  power 
th;U  money  gives,  or  the  laudable  ambition  in  gain- 
ing it,  or  the  influence  that  culture  and  intellectual 
power  brings  with  it,  but  I  do  say  it  is  a  shame  to 
figure  from  such  accumulation  of  riches  or  power 
alone  an  answer  of  success.  That  life  is  a  real  suc- 
cess which  blesses  as  it  goes;  which,  while  it  enriches 


268   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

self,  enriches    others;    which,    while    it    accumulates 
power,  lifts  others  with  it. 

Little  words  of  sympathy,  little  acts  of  kindness, 
little  deeds  of  love,  little  helping  hands  encircling 
others  and  making  easier  the  way  for  them  —  these 
are  the  little  successes  which,  when  gathered  into  one 
great  whole,  give  the  pattern  of  life  which  God  ap- 
proves. Such  a  life  alone  makes  men  honored  and 
loved,  makes  of  the  life  a  sweet  garden  all  fragrant 
with  the  perfume  of  its  flowers  which,  while  they 
blossom  for  the  gardener,  cheer  and  bless  those  who 
pass  his  way.  Like  the  line  of  the  brook  which,  as 
far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  you  can  follow  by  the 
fresher  green  of  the  field  through  which  it  flows,  so 
the  influence  of  the  really  successful  life  is  felt  by  all 
that  touch  it,  and  when  it  opens  up  into  the  everlasting 
life  beyond,  will  still  leave  behind  a  fragrance  and  a 
fruitage  which  shall  be  a  halo  of  blessing  and  an  in- 
spiration to  others  struggling  along  life's  way. 


IF 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  PracticaljPeople. 


THE  COUNTRY  LAD  IN  THE  CITY. 


BY  EDWARD    W.  BOK, 

EDITOR  LADIES'  HOME  JOURNAL. 


THERE  comes  a  time  in  the  life  of  almost  every 
country  lad  when  he  becomes  ambitious  and 
desires  to  go  to  one  of  the  large  cities  and  make  his 
fortune.  His  energies  are  fired  either  by  the  young 
men  from  the  city  who  come  to  his  village  during 
the  summer,  or,  it  may  be,  his  enthusiasm  is  kindled 
by  the  successes  of  which  he  reads  in  the  papers 
which  come  to  the  house  of  his  parents.  The  rou- 
tine of  farm  life  suddenly  becomes  more  monotonous 
than  ever,  and  he  craves  for  the  activity  and  excite- 
ment of  city  life.  In  short :  he  wants  to  go  to  the 
city.  There,  he  feels,  lies  the  chance  "to  make 
something  of  himself." 

Whether  or  not  it  is  always  wise  for  the  farmer's 
son  to  give  way  to  his  feeling  and  leave  his  home, 
where  he  is  at  least  certain  of  food  and  comfortable 
shelter,  for  the  uncertainties  which  he  must  surely 
encounter  in  city  life,  is  not  for  me  here  to  consider. 
Sometimes  I  think  it  would  be  better  if  our  young 
men  would  stay  on  the  farm.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  must  be  instances  where  it  will  be  best 


2/O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

for  the  young  man  to  at  least  attempt  the  change. 
No  writer  can  lay  down  a  rule  in  this  respect.  Every 
case  is  an  individual  one,  and  the  young  man  him- 
self must  be  the  one  to  decide. 

Suppose,  however,  that  the  country  lad  is  unmind- 
ful of  the  entreaties  of  father,  mother,  brother  and 
sister,  and  is  determined  to  try  his  luck  in  the  city, 
what  are  his  chances  of  success  ? 

Country  lads  generally  see  city  life  through  rose- 
colored  glasses.  This  it  is  hard  to  make  them  be- 
lieve, but  the  fact  remains  nevertheless.  Life  in  a 
great  city  is  not  what  he  expects  to  find  it.  In- 
variably it  is  disappointing,  and  this  is  the  first  thing 
he  must  be  prepared  for.  He  has  heard  and  read 
wonderful  accounts  of  the  successes  that  have  been 
made,  and  are  to  be  made  in  the  city.  But  what  we 
hear  and  read  of  any  thing  in  this  life  is  generally 
radically  different  from  the  actual  life.  Not  that 
pens  or  mouths  invariably  falsify,  but  a  description 
of  any  thing  is  apt  to  be  colored  by  the  point  of 
view  from  which  it  is  seen.  If  the  country  lad's 
going  to  the  city  is  based  on  what  he  has  heard  or 
read,  the  keenest  disappointment  lies  in  store  for 
him.  I  have  known  so  many  cases  of  disappoint 
ment  of  this  sort  that  I  write  of  what  I  know,  not 
of  what  I  think. 

Life  in  our  great  American  cities  is  selfish,  at  its 
very  best.  In  business,  men  are  for  the  most  part 
cold  and  hard,  cognizant  only  of  their  own  interests. 
"  Well,"  says  our  country  lad,  "  so  are  the  men  in 


THE    COUNTRY    LAD    IN    THE    CITY.  271 

any  neighborhood.  Are  not  men  the  same  the  world 
over?"  Yes,  my  good  fellow,  they  are:  but  they 
are  likewise  different.  The  selfishness  of  the  city 
business  man  is  intensified  in  comparison  to  that  of 
the  farmer.  It  must  necessarily  be  so,  since  the  city 
man,  as  a  rule,  has  larger  interests,  and  competition 
is  keener.  A  man  is  apt  to  become  like  his  sur- 
roundings, and  the  natures  of  thousands  of  our  city 
business  men  are  like  the  pavements  upon  which 
they  walk  each  day,  and  the  walls  upon  which  their 
eyes  rest.  Green  trees  and  soft  grass  have  an  enor- 
mous influence  upon  a  man,  and  the  best  evidence 
of  this  truth  is  found  in  the  softer  natures  which  our 
city  business  men  show  to  the  world  when  they  are 
in  the  country  in  the  summer.  The  country  lad 
must  never  allow  himself  to  forget  the  great  truth 
that  the  clearest  natures  are  always  to  be  found 
where  the  purest  water  exists.  "God  made  the 
country,  but  man  made  the  city,"  is  a  proverb  in 
which  there  is  a  vast  amount  of  truth. 

A  country  lad  coming  to  one  of  our  great  cities  to 
make  a  career  must  expect  no  leniency  for  his  short- 
comings. I  speak,  now  of  experience  as  a  rule,  not 
of  the  exceptions.  There  have  been  cases,  and 
doubtless  will  be,  where  a  young  man  fresh  from  the 
country  has  come  to  the  city  and  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  some  one  who  resembled  the  Good  Samari- 
tan of  Biblical  lore,  but  such  have  always  been  the 
exceptions  and  ever  will  be.  As  a  rule,  life  is  very 
real  in  a  great  city,  and  likewise  are  its  men  very 


272   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

earthly  and  of  the  earth  earthy.  Good  Samaritans 
who  will  bind  up  the  wounds  which  the  country  lad 
receives  during  his  first  year  or  two  in  the  city  are 
not  as  numerous  as  many  of  us  might  like  to  believe. 
And  the  country  lad  must  receive  wounds.  He 
comes  to  city  life  untrained  and  unequipped.  At  his 
best,  he  is  at  a  disadvantage  with  the  young  men 
who  have  been  either  born  in  the  city  or  trained 
there  from  their  childhood.  And,  as  a  rule,  men 
have  very  little  patience  with  a  young  man's  short- 
comings in  business.  "My  office  cannot  be  a  train- 
ing school :  we  haven't  time  for  that  sort  of  thing," 
is  a  statement  one  often  hears  in  business  circles. 
With  competition  as  keen  as  it  is  to-day  in  every 
trade  and  profession,  the  business  man  looks  around 
for  young  men  who  can  come  equipped,  and  who 
can  bring  at  least  some  knowledge  to  the  work,  and 
the  greater  the  knowledge,  the  warmer  the  welcome. 
"  But  surely  there  mi^st  be  chances  in  such  great 
cities  as  New  York,  Boston,  Chicago,  or  Philadelphia 
for  a  young  man  to  begin  ! "  exclaims  the  country 
lad.  There  are,  my  dear  fellow,  there  are,  and  plenty 
of  them,  if  you  are  prepared  for  the  experiences  which 
they  will  mean  to  you.  The  great  strength  of  our 
country  is  that  there  is  a  chance  for  every  young 
man,  and  a  place  for  him.  But  the  beginning  is 
hard,  very  hard  indeed — a  great  deal  harder  than 
young  fellows,  as  a  rule,  either  dream  of,  or  will  be- 
lieve. And  particularly  difficult  is  it  to  the  young 
man  to  whom  every  phase  of  city  life  is  strange. 


THE    COUNTRY    LAD    IN    THE    CITY.  273 

He  must  learn  right  from  the  beginning.  In  fact  he 
has  two  studies  before  him  :  the  study  of  city  life 
itself  and  of  business  methods  in  a  city,  and  he 
must  study  them  both  together.  He  cannot  afford 
the  time  to  take  them  singly.  Moments  are  very 
precious  things  in  city  business  life.  It  is  a  great 
game  in  which  every  point  counts,  and  the  loss  of  a 
single  point  may  lose  the  game.  Such  moments  of 
restful  activity  as  enter  into  the  life  of  a  lad  on  a 
farm  are  unknown  in  the  life  of  the  right  sort  of  a 
young  man  in  business  life.  A  young  man  making 
his  career  in  the  city  must  be  constantly  on  the  alert : 
every  energy  must  be  alive,  and  a  moment  wasted  is 
an  opportunity  lost.  That  is,  if  he  desires  to  make  a 
success  worth  having.  Indifferent  successes  do  not 
call  for  all  this.  But  if  a  young  man  seeks  simply 
for  a  moderate  living,  he  will  do  best  to  remain  on 
the  farm,  and  not  venture  into  the  city.  Only  misery 
and  privation  of  the  keenest  sort  awaits  a  young 
fellow  of  lackadaisical  spirits  in  the  city.  There  is 
but  one  way  to  make  a  success  in  business,  and  that 
way  calls  for  the  hardest  kind  of  work,  with  scarcely 
an  intermission  for  the  first  ten,  fifteen  or  twenty 
years. 

I  am  sometimes  inclined  to  believe  if  I  were  a 
country  lad,  with  a  desire  to  go  to  the  great  city 
nearest  my  home  to  make  a  career,  I  would  not  go 
directly  from  my  home  to  the  city  itself,  but,  as  a  first 
step,  I  would  endeavor  to  get  closer  to  the  city,  and 
study  it  from  a  nearer  standpoint  without  at  first 
18 


274   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

plunging  into  its  very  midst.  It  may  be  said,  in  con- 
tradiction of  this,  that  as  the  only  true  way  of  learn- 
ing French  is  to  live  directly  in  a  French  family 
where  one  learns  per  force,  so  the  only  way  to  know 
a  city  is  to  live  in  its  midst  from  the  very  start,  and 
not  touch  it  gingerly  from  a  closer  distance.  At  the 
same  time,  while  this  view  may  be  wise  for  some,  I 
am  strong  in  my  belief  that  a  conservative  course  is 
always  the  best.  The  change  from  a  life  on  the  farm 
to  the  bustle  of  a  great  city  represents  the  extremes, 
and  these  are  rarely  healthful  for  any  young  man. 
The  mind  at  twenty  or  twenty-five  is  easily  swayed,  and 
I  like  to  believe  that  mental  training  is  a  pretty  good 
thing.  Only  the  strongest  constitutions  can  stand 
sudden  changes,  and  what  is  true  of  us  physically  is 
apt  to  be  true  of  us  mentally  and  morally.  A  num- 
ber of  successful  careers  demonstrate  the  utility  of 
my  plan.  Many  a  young  country  lad  has  gone  closer 
to  city  life,  and  yet  has  not  become  directly  of  it. 
There  he  has  set  up  his  tents  and  there  he  is  to-day, 
never  having  ventured  into  the  sfreat  business  life  of 

o  o 

the  city,  save  to  make  commercial  connections  and 
solidify  himself  to  the  heart  of  commerce.  It  is  a  mis- 
taken idea  that  a  success  can  only  be  made  in  the 
great  cities.  Very  often  can  a  man  throw  a  greater 
light  upon  the  metropolis  at  a  little  distance  from  it 
than  if  he  were  right  in  the  midst  of  it.  Great  cities 
swallow  up  some  mighty  clever  people.  The  man 
who  keeps  a  little  away  from  the  great  caldron  that 
boils  in  the  heart  of  every  city  often  makes  just  as 


THE    COUNTRY    LAD    IX    THE    CITY.  275 

great  a  success  as  the  man  in  the  midst  of  it,  and  he 
wears  himself  out  less  in  the  attempt. 

When  a  young  man  who  all  his  life  has  lived  in  the 
country  goes  to  the  city  in  search  of  success,  he  must 
bear  in  mind  that  his  life  will  vary  only  in  the  minor 
details,  but  not  in  its  general  principles.  It  is  a  com 
mon  belief  that  men  are  morally  worse  in  the  city 
than  they  are  in  the  country.  This  is  absolute  non- 
sense. Men  themselves  are  not  one  iota  worse  or 
better  in  the  city  than  in  the  country.  A  man  of 
vicious  tendencies  will  be  as  vicious  in  one  place  as 
he  will  in  another.  A  greater  number  of  temptations 
exist  in  the  city,  naturally.  These  he  can  accept  or 
reject,  just  as  he  sees  fit.  It  depends  on  the  man 
absolutely.  If  a  young  man  comes  to  the  city  strong 
in  his  principles  of  right  and  wrong,  he  has  nothing 
to  fear  from  city  life,  and  a  young  man  cannot  afford 
to  swerve  from  the:n  any  more  in  one  place  than  he 
can  in  the  other.  To  say  that  life  is  more  loose  in 
sorn2  respects  in  the  city  than  it  is  in  the  country,  is 
to  state  an  untruth  that  cannot  be  verified  in  one  sin- 
gle instance.  It  cannot  be  so.  If  anything,  it  is  far 
more  necessary  for  a  man  to  lead  an  upright  life  in 
the  city  than  in  the  country,  since  the  mental  strain 
is  greater,  and  he  has  more  need  of  his  physical 
resources. 

To  tell  a  young  man  going  from  his  country  home 
to  the  city  that  he  must  leave  behind  him  his  old- 
fashioned  notions  of  religion,  is  to  rob  him  of  the 
very  armor  which  he  will  need  more  than  anv  other 


276   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

element  in  his  life.  Religion,  and  all  that  it  implies, 
goes  for  just  as  much,  and  counts  just  the  same  in 
the  city  as  it  does  in  the  country.  The  business  life 
of  our  cities  is  created,  built,  sustained  and  will  always 
be  conducted  on  lines  of  the  strictest  honesty.  Integ- 
rity is  the  current  coin  which  passes  for  its  fullest 
value  in  metropolitan  commercial  circles. 

A  country  lad  coming  to  town  with  the  determina- 
tion to  make  an  honest  success  need  leave  nothing 
behind  him.  In  fact,  the  closer  he  adheres  to  the 
principles  taught  him  by  his  mother,  the  surer  are  his 
chances  of  success.  If  he  was  taught  by  his  mother 
that  profanity  is  never  indulged  in  by  gentlemen,  he 
will  find  the  verification  of  that  lesson  in  the  city.  If 
he  leaves  his  mother's  home  with  the  idea  impressed 
upon  his  mind  that  the  use  of  strong  drink  is  one  of 
the  greatest  curses  to  mankind  and  always  stands  in 
the  way  of  a  young  man's  success,  he  will  be  con- 
vinced of  it  in  the  city  where  he  will  very  shortly  learn 
that  the  most  successful  business  men  never  touch  a 
drop  of  alcohol  in  any  shape  or  form.  He  will  soon 
find  out  for  himself  the  one  truth  to  which  there  is 
no  exception  —  that  a  clear  mind  andean  absolute 
avoidance  of  intoxicants  go  hand  in  hand,  and  that 
the  one  cannot  be  separated  from  the  other.  If  his 
mind  has  been  trained  to  believe  in  the  existence  of 
a  God  who  rules  the  destiny  of  every  being  in  the  uni- 
verse, and  to  whom  the  perplexed  spirit  can  always 
go  in  prayer  and  find  light  in  moments  of  the  darkest 
doubt  and  anguish,  he  will  have  no  occasion  to  de- 


THE    COUNTRY    LAD    IN    THE    CITY.  277 

part  from  that  belief.  On  the  contrary,  as  he  meets 
with  the  disappointments  and  trials  which  must  un- 
questionably come  to  him,  the  belief  of  his  boyhood 
will  become  a  living  fact  in  his  manhood.  Let  him 
depart  from  his  country  home  with  a  high  ideal  of  the 
best  and  truest  womanhood  as  reflected  in  his  mother 
and  sisters,  and  he  will  find  that  the  highest  ideal  is 
none  too  high  for  him  to  sustain  if  he  wishes  to  win 
respect. 

The  great  principles  of  life  do  not  vary  one  par- 
ticle in  the  city  from  those  of  the  country.  Some 
people  simply  imagine  they  do.  There  is  but  one 
sound  basis  to  a  man's  life,  wherever  his  lines  may  be 
cast,  and  that  is  the  basis  of  thorough  respectability. 
Upon  that  basis  he  can  build  the  surest  success  ; 
without  it  he  is  as  helpless  as  a  ship  at  sea  without  a 
compass.  There  are  no  half-way  measures  of  success. 
The  same  principles  of  honesty  that  exist  in  the 
country  store,  rule  in  the  city  counting  house.  A 
young  man  cannot  depart  one  inch  in  his  personal 
life  with  any  greater  degree  of  safety  among  the 
pavements  of  the  city  than  he  can  among  the  fields  of 
his  country  home.  The  standard  of  morality  is  not 
one  particle  lower,  and  it  is  pure  nonsense  to  imagine 
that  it  is  so.  How  could  it  be  with  any  safety  to  the 
great  commercial  interests  that  thrive  in  our  cities  ? 
Much  that  we  hear  and  read  of  the  dark  side  of  city 
life,  is  the  work  of  imaginative  writers.  I  have  again 
and  again  read  books,  and  seen  plays,  in  which  life  in 
New  York  was  portrayed  in  a  manner  that  simply 


278   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

made  me  marvel  at  the  ingenuity  of  the  man  who 
could  build  so  much  out  of  so  little.  There  is 
another  than  the  vicious  side  of  city  life,  but  because 
it  is  less  attractive  in  its  details  to  the  mass  of  the 
people,  we  do  not  hear  or  read  so  much  about  it.  No 
young  man  with  a  firm  idea  fixed  in  his  mind,  need 
hesitate  to  come  to  the  city  because  of  its  morality 
or  immorality.  He  has  nothing  to  do  with  that  — 
at  least,  he  need  have  nothing  to  do  with  it.  If  he 
finds  immorality,  it  will  be  only  because  he  seeks  it. 
Let  him  avoid  it  and  it  will  never  enter  into  his  life. 
Vice  is  not  thrust  upon  us  half  as  much  as  we  like 
people  to  believe  that  it  is.  It  may  come  where  it  is 
uninvited,  but  it  never  stays  unless  encouraged. 

To  the  lad  on  a  farm  with  an  ambition  to  go  to 
the  city  and  make  a  success,  let  me  say  : 

If  you  feel  something  within  you  that  compels  the 
belief  that  you  were  destined  to  move  among  men 
and  be  a  larger  part  of  the  great  commercial  interests 
of  the  nation  than  you  can  possibly  be  on  the  farm, 
then  go  to  the  city.  But  be  sure,  first,  that  you  are 
not  impelled  to  seek  a  change  because  of  a  simple 
dissatisfaction  with  your  surroundings.  That  means 
nothing  except  a  negative  quality  that  will  have  no 
place  in  a  larger  success  elsewhere. 

Be  convinced  that  you  have  determination  that 
lacks  development  purely  because  of  the  limited 
opportunities  a  life  on  the  farm  necessarily  offers. 
In  other  words  :  Have  an  aim,  a  purpose  which  is 
practicable,  and  capable  of  being  carried  out.  Make 


THE    COUNTRY    LAD    IN    THE    CITY.  279 

sure,  too,  that  the  purpose  is  not  beyond  your  capa- 
bilities. Every  one  of  us  have  our  limitations,  and 
it  is  wise  first  to  know  something  of  our  powers  of 
swimming  before  we  plunge  beyond  our  depth. 
Realize  fully  that  the  place  has  something  to  do  with 
our  success,  but  we  ourselves  are,  after  all,  the  most 
important  part  of  a  success.  To  thousands  of  young 
men  all  places  are  alike  in  that  they  would  be  a  fail- 
ure in  one  place  as  well  as  in  another. 

A  young  man's  decision,  so  far  as  a  change  in  his 
life  is  concerned,  must  be  made  by  himself  alone, 
and  is  only  capable  of  being  so  made.  All  the 
advice  in  the  world  amounts  to  very  little.  It  is  a 
true  saying  that  a  person  only  seeks  advice  after  he 
has  made  up  his  mind.  Likewise  is  the  proverb  very 
true  that  every  man  is  the  architect  of  his  own  for- 
tune. I  do  not  counsel  headstrongness  in  a  young 
man,  or  an  insensibility  to  good  advice.  But  I  do 
say  and  believe  that  every  young  man  must  decide 
his  own  career  for  himself.  He  should  not  make 
such  a  decision  until  he  is  old  enough  to  know  what 
he  is  about.  But  then  he  should  decide  by  himself 
and  for  himself  alone.  He  can  seek  counsel,  but  the 
decision  itself  must  be  of  his  own. 

Having  satisfied  himself  that  his  path  in  life  lies  in 
the  direction  of  the  city  rather  than  on  the  farm,  let 
him,  before  he  starts,  bear  in  mind  these  few  points: 

That  he  will  find  the  city  radically  different  from 
what  he  has  read  and  heard  of  it.  For  this,  his  first 
disappointment,  he  must  be  prepared.  Should  the 


280   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

real  prove  beyond  the  ideal,  so  much  the  better  and 
pleasanter.  But  it  is  not  likely  to  be. 

That  he  has  years  of  the  hardest  and  most  trying 
work  before  him;  not  one,  two  or  five  years,  but 
double  and  triple  any  of  these  number  of  years.  If 
he  has  read  or  heard  of  what  are  called  "  quick  suc- 
cesses," he  will  very  quickly  find  out  that  such  suc- 
cesses are  made  nowadays  only  on  paper:  never  in 
reality.  Behind  every  instance  of  a  lasting  success 
lie  years  and  years  of  the  hardest  kind  of  work. 

He  must  bear  in  mind  also  that  there  is  no  short 
road  to  success.  He  cannot  "  cut  across  lots."  There 
is  but  one  road  to  a  successful  life,  and  that  is  the  road 
paved  by  patience,  hard  work  and  honesty.  Nothing 
is  to  be  had  for  the  asking  in  the  business  world  of 
the  great  cities;  everything  must  be  acquired.  Nor 
can  the  majority  of  things,  particularly  those  most 
valuable  to  us,  be  bought.  They  must  be  experienced. 
And  a  great  deal  of  pain  and  hardships  go  with  most 
experiences. 

For  a  concise  set  of  rules  let  me  give  the  country 
young  man  that  which  I  published  elsewhere  not  long 
since,  and  met  with  acceptance  : 

Be  sure  you  get  into  a  business  you  like. 

Devote  yourself  to  it. 

Be  honest  in  everything;  don't  blink  at  honesty — • 
look  it  straight  in  the  face. 

Be  thorough.  Do  everything  as  if  it  were  the  only 
thing  you  were  ever  going  to  do,  and  your  life  repu- 
tation must  be  made  upon  the  result. 


THE    COUNTRY    LAD    IN    THE    CITY.  28 1 

Employ  caution  ;  think  out  a  thing  before  you 
enter  upon  it. 

Sleep  eight  hours  every  night  ;  do  this  despite 
everything  ;  rather  lose  a  chance  than  lose  an  hour  of 
sleep. 

Do  everything  that  means  keeping  in  good  health. 

Avoid  liquors  of  all  kinds. 

Be  deferential  to  women  always,  never  forgetting 
that  your  mother  is  a  woman. 

Smoke  moderately,  or  not  at  all :  the  last  is  best. 

Shun  discussions  on  two  points  —  religion  and 
politics. 

Cultivate  the  society  of  good  women ;  a  good 
woman  is  always  a  man's  best  friend  :  first  and  last 
choose  the  truest  among  them,  marry  her,  and  have 
your  own  home. 

And  whatever  else  you  may  forget  of  your  early 
days,  remember  that  there  are  obligations  which  bind 
your  thoughts  and  affections  to  those  from  whom  you 
sprang.  Success  will  never  come  to  a  son  who  either 
forgets  his  parents,  or  looks  askance  at  them,  because 
in  a  measure  he  has  outgrown  their  ways,  he  being  of 
the  city,  and  they  of  the  country.  Closely  knitted 
into  every  success,  is  the  only  commandment  of  all 
the  ten  to  which  is  attached  a  promise  : 

"  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother,  that  thy  days 
may  be  long  upon  the  land." 


ECONOMY. 


BY  JOHN  M.  FRANCIS, 

EX-UMTED   STATES  MINISTER  TO  AUSTRIA. 


meaning  of  the  word  needs  little  exposition. 
JL  Every  mind  of  average  intelligence  under- 
stands it  in  a  general  sense.  Its  application  and  en- 
forcement in  the  details  of  affairs  constitute  the 
practical  executive  force  which  demands  our  atten- 
tion. What  is  economy  ?  Originally  its  meaning 
seems  to  have  been  limited  to  household  matters,  as 
one  authority  defines  it  —  "  House-management, 
house-ruling,  house-keeping."  This  is  as  it  came 
from  the  patriarchal  age.  But  it  has  largely  broadened 
with  our  ideas  of  civil  relationships,  so  that  we  have 
economy  included  as  a  factor  in  business  concerns 
and  governmental  management  as  well  as  in  domestic 
policies.  The  definition  of  one  writer  seems  to  be  a 
very  clear  presentation  of  the  meaning  of  economy, 
namely  :  "  The  management,  regulation  or  super- 
vision of  means  or  resources  ;  especially  the  manage- 
ment of  pecuniary  or  other  concerns  of  a  household  ; 
hence  a  frugal  and  judicious  use  of  money,  material 
and  time  —  the  avoidance  of,  or  freedom  from,  waste 
or  extravagance  in  the  management  or  use  of  any- 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  People. 

s 


ECONOMY.  283 

thing  ;  frugality  in  the  expenditure  of  money  and  ma- 
terial." So  it  would  seem,  after  all,  the  meaning  is 
crystallized  in  this  one  idea  of  the  proper  management 
of  one's  concerns.  Illustrative  examples  we  have  in 
plenty  pointing  out  sad  failures  from  the  lack  of  it ; 
conspicuous  success  and  largest  usefulness  from  its  in- 
telligent exercise.  In  the  care  of  important  matters, 
public  and  private,  the  largest  safety  is  to  be  as- 
sured by  reposing  confidence  in  those  who  have  faith- 
fully and  habitually  enforced  for  themselves  the  policy 
of  wise  economy.  Of  course  there  must  be  the  basis 
of  personal  integrity.  But  such  economy  builds  upon 
that  basis.  Observe  the  examples  of  Washington  and 
Jefferson.  Reading  their  papers  it  will  be  seen  with 
what  scrupulous  care  they  administered  their  house- 
holds. Washington  even  in  camp,  with  the  cares  of 
the  campaign  devolved  upon  him,  looked  after  the 
details  of  his  mess  and  his  personal  expenditures. 
And  so  this  habit,  this  policy  of  economy,  had  expres- 
sion in  his  careful  account  of  household  expenditures 
while  he  was  President.  Jefferson  planned  his  house, 
his  garden,  his  farm,  everything  to  the  last  detail. 
All  this  to  avoid  waste,  to  enforce  reasonable  frugality. 
It  was,  too,  a  healthy  exercise  of  mind  as  well  as  a 
beneficent  example.  Such  men  are  to  be  trusted. 
They  were  the  highest  types  of  the  class  of  men  in1 
whom  others  put  confidence.  One  has  put  the  case 
in  a  sentence  —  "  Never  trust  a  man  to  save  for  you 
who  does  not  save  for  himself." 

All  this  leads   up   to  the  thought  of  the   past   in 


284   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

respect  of  economy,  and  should  be  suggestive  of 
duties  for  the  future.  We  know  that  the  sturdy  men 
and  women  of  the  early  days  in  our  own  country 
were  workers,  honest,  frugal  and  saving.  They 
wrestled  with  nature— rugged  nature,  too,  as  in  New 
England- and  acquired  for  themselves  comfortable 
homes,  the  nurseries  of  virtues  that  permeated  the 
growing  settlements  and  augmenting  populations,  all 
brought  up,  so  to  speak,  to  work,  to  save,  to  assure 
increase  from  the  enforcement  of  wholesome  economy. 
So  manly  courage  was  inspired,  strength  of  character 
developed,  and  the  best  fruits  of  Christian  civiliza- 
tion were  ripened  for  the  blessed  harvesting.  It  is 
within  the  recollection  of  many  still  surviving  that 
they  were  brought  up  under  the  discipline  of  economy; 
work  was  appointed  for  them,  and  work  they  had  to 
do  as  strength  and  ability  permitted ;  idleness,  that 
generating  power  of  evil,  was  not  tolerated. 

The  times  of  prosperity,  often  more  apparent  than 
real,  came  as  the  results  of  industrial  reaction  and 
multiplied  labor-saving  inventions  after  the  success- 
ful war  to  maintain  the  Union.  A  condition  of  un- 
rest, largely  among  the  rural  populations,  manifested 
itself.  There  was  discontent,  especially  among  the 
younger  people  of  the  country,  with  the  old-fashioned 
conditions  of  economy  and  labor  for  a  living.  There 
was  the  desire  to  change  the  old  order  of  things. 
Many  who  were  living  comfortably  and  adding  a 
little  to  their  material  possessions  by  industry  and 
frugality,  were  persuaded  to  branch  out  into  larger 


ECONOMY.  285 

expenditures,  run  into  debt  for  household  purchases, 
and  to  secure  some  of  the  luxuries  of  a  more  costly 
living  than  they  had  hitherto  known,  luxuries  that 
the  wealthy  were  enjoying.  This  was  the  craze,  and 
it  brought  with  it  debt.  Industry  was  slackened;  in 
the  spirit  of  discontent  young  men  from  the  country 
flocked  into  the  cities  searching  for  situations  to 
afford  them  an  easier  living  with  hope  of  quick  ac- 
cumulations. Comparatively  few  could  obtain  the 
desired  places  ;  there  was  congestion  from  the  crowd 
of  applicants.  Many  wisely  returned  to  resume  the 
wholesome  work  at  the  old  home  ;  others  moved  on 
to  other  fields  ;  some  were  successful ;  not  a  few 
lamentably  failed.  The  inspirations  of  the  hegira 
were  generated  by  abnormal  discontent.  The  influ- 
ence was  detrimental. 

The  fact  so  tersely  enunciated  by  the  lamented 
Lincoln  embraces  a  lesson  far-reaching  and  import- 
ant —  "  You  can't  get  something  for  nothing."  Labor 
must  earn-;  economy  must  rule  ;  frugality  must  save. 
It  should  be  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the  young 
and  be  heeded  as  a  truthful  maxim  by  all,  that  "  money 
represents  toil."  Labor  is  the  producing  power. 
The  capacity  for  successful  trade  and  the  genius  for 
speculation  that  achieves  great  wealth  and  securely 
holds  it,  are  vouchsafed  to  very  few.  And  with  these 
oftentimes  come  evils  innumerable  and  sadly  de- 
moralizing as  the  result  of  sudden  riches.  Persistent 
industry;  home  life  with  blessed  content  ;  moderate 
material  gains  honestly  acquired  ;  economy  rigidly 


286   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

enforced  and  frugality  with  systematized  methods 
carefully  observed  in  the  details  of  saving,  to  prevent 
waste  and  guard  against  prodigality, —  these  consti- 
tute essential  agencies  for  the  most  useful  and  suc- 
cessful living,  and  the  forces  that  foster  and  protect 
the  virtues  which  yield  domestic,  social  and  public 
happiness. 

We  have  fallen  in  some  respects  upon  evil  times. 
To  apply  the  corrective  we  must  return  to  first  princi- 
ples. Earnest,  honest  work  is  essential,  not  neces- 
sarily by  the  old  and  discarded  methods,  but  work 
with  improved  appliances  when  available,  to  bring 
out  the  best  results.  Work  there  should  be  in  every 
household,  and  by  every  capable  member  thereof - 
no  shirking,  no  idling  away  of  time,  but  persistent 
and  useful  work.  Only  misery  can  come  from  the 
evasion  or  attempted  evasion  of  the  divine  fiat  to 
work.  The  good  old  policy  of  economy  must  be  re- 
stored to  make  work  tell  in  the  achievement  of  de- 
sirable success,  with  happy  homes,  and  the  crowning 
glory  of  highest  manhood  and  womanhood.  False 
pride  pampered  by  the  curse  of  debt,  a  pride  to  make 
purchases  beyond  one's  means,  with  a  view  of  match- 
ing or  surpassing  in  household  equipment  or  other 
glamor  of  showy  presentation  those  of  larger  and 
abundant  means  to  follow  the  leadership  of  fashion  - 
this  false  pride  needs  to  be  greatly  curbed  or  wholly 
extirpated.  A  laudable  pride  is  commendable  —  do- 
ing the  best  possible  with  means  at  command  to 
gratify  it.  But  false  pride  ruins  with  debt  ;  it  per- 


ECONOMY.  287 

verts  wholesome  taste  to  excesses  that  are  pernicious, 
and  invites  perils  fraught  with  demoralization.  Sav- 
ing comes  of  frugality  —  saving  here  and  there  and 
of  small  things  which  go  to  make  up  the  larger ;  and 
so  the  habit  becomes  a  second  nature  which  should 
be  inculcated  as  among  the  most  valued  and  useful  of 
life's  disciplinary  duties.  A  policy  of  parsimony,  of 
that  selfishness  that  works  out  meanness,  is  to  be 
avoided.  Proper  economy  is  wisdom ;  meanness  is 
despicable. 

So  much  is  given  in  this  short  paper  in  a  general 
way,  rather  as  a  brief  for  suggestion  than  an  essay  to 
dispense  specific  instructions.  As  pertaining  to  the 
theme,  however,  some  points  may  be  properly  given 
to  young  men  in  whom  great  trusts  are  to  be  reposed 
with  vast  duties  and  responsibilities  devolving  upon 
them.  Following  may  be  presented  as  such  hints, 
few  in  number,  homely,  but  brief  : 

1.  Get  the   best  education   opportunity  may  offer 
and  diligent  study  secure.     Conquer  the  rudiments  ; 
learn  to  spell  well,  to  write  intelligently  ;  learn  gram- 
mar, the   rules    and   logic   of   your   language ;  study 
geography  with  patient  care,  and  arithmetic  for  busi- 
ness equipment. 

2.  Learn   early  to   practice  rigid  economy  ;  waste 
not  at  all ;  keep  your  accounts  with  careful  accuracy. 
Shun  bad  company;  work  to  become  self-sustaining 
and  independent. 

3.  Take  a  proper  and  cool-minded  interest  in  pub- 


288   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

lie  affairs.     Read  good  books  and  read  to-  learn  and 
remember. 

4.  Make  up  your  mind  that  life  is  a  struggle,  and 
success  rewards  those  who  are  real  workers.     This  as 
a  stimulant  for  work. 

5.  Learn  as  you  may  from  the  experience  of  others  ; 
do  not  feel  obliged  to   learn   every  thing  from  your 
own.      In   other  words,  listen   to   the   advice   of  the 
wise  and  the  good,  so  their  opinions  and  instructions 
may  prove  to  you  a  power  of  help  in  time  of  need. 

6.  Never  be  impatient  or  fickle-minded.     Work  for 
a  purpose  ;    press   forward  — •  never  get    discouraged. 
Be  prudent ;  avoid  debt  except  as  necessity  requires 
temporary  credit.      And  be  prepared  at  all  hazards 
to  meet  its  obligations  as  promised.     And  now,  as  the 
first  and  last  rule,  form  the   habit,  make  it  a  law  of 
life  always  to  be  polite  and  just,  and  in  business  em- 
ployment and  activities  strictly  regardful  of  Economy. 


.    n 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  PeopU. 


SINCERITY. 


BY  ALFRED  C.  BARNES, 


fRESIDENT  OF  ASTOR  PLACE  NATIONAL  BANK,  NEW  YORK  CITY  ;  VICE-PRESIDENT  OF  AMERICAN 

BOOK  COMPANY. 


IF  I  have  learned  to  value  one  quality  more  than 
another  in  business  life  it  is  sincerity.  Always 
be  what  you  appear  to  be,  and  always  appear  to  be 
what  you  really  are,  even  if  your  real  self  falls  short 
of  some  romantic  ideal  you  may  have  formed.  When 
you  have  once  won  the  confidence  of  those  with  whom 
you  are  thrown  in  contact,  defects  of  manner,  circum- 
stances, and  even  defects  of  character  which  do  not 
impair  essential  truthfulness  will  be  overlooked. 
Friends  and  patrons  will  gather  and  stick  fast  to  you. 
Others  will  rejoice  to  aid  you,  because  it  is  certain 
that  kindness  will  not  be  misapplied  or  abused,  and 
that  you  will  endeavor  to  return  to  all  the  equivalent 
of  what  you  accept.  Herein  is  involved  a  principle 
that  underlies  all  the  laws  of  healthful  human  inter- 
course. It  is  insincere  to  "  take  an  advantage,"  either 
openly  or  secretly.  An  honest,  true,  pure,  sincere 
man  will  not  rest  under  the  burden  of  an  obligation 
such  as  would  arise  from  an  inequitable  transaction 
with  a  neighbor.  Show  that  you  want  nothing  but 
'9 


2QO   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

that  is  your  own,  an  honest  equivalent  for  honest 
service,  and  not  only  good  morals  but  good  policy 
will  be  subserved  thereby.  Tricky  transactions  may 
seem  to  afford  present  gain,  but  ruined  reputation  or 
a  seared  conscience  is  dearly  bought  at  such  a  price. 
Dishonest  possessions  are  morally  mortgaged,  and 
heavy  is  the  interest  exacted  by  the  satanic  capitalist 
who  holds  all  such  obligations. 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  People. 


THE   HOME  ON  THE   FARM. 


BY  WALDO  F.  BROWN. 


T  T  is  related  of  Matthew  Arnold,  the  great  Eng- 
J_  lish  poet  and  author,  that  when  visiting  America 
nothing  impressed  him  so  favorably  as  the  farm 
homes  of  this  country,  but  he  was  greatly  surprised 
to  find  no  laborers'  cottages  on  the  farms,  and  in- 
quired, lt  Where  do  the  men  live  who  cultivate  these 
lands  ?  "  and  his  surprise  was  great  when  he  learned 
that  the  owners  of  the  farms  were  their  own  tenants, 
and  in  not  a  few  cases  performed  most  of  the  labor. 
Probably  no  other  country  in  the  world  can  show  so 
many  elegant  farm  homes  as  ours,  and  in  no  other 
country  does  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  leading 
men  of  the  country  come  from  the  farm.  It  has  been 
a  matter  of  investigation  by  men  as  prominent  as 
Washington  Gladden,  and  others,  and  it  has  been 
found  that  usually  of  the  100  leading  men  in  a 
moderate  sized  city,  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  of 
them  were  farm  boys.  In  my  own  county  seat,  a 
city  of  20,000,  twenty-three  out  of  thirty-two  lawyers 
were  farmers'  sons,  and  the  last  three  presidents  of 
Miami  University,  the  alma  mater  of  Ex-President 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Harrison,  Whitelaw  Reid  and  Senator  Brice  were 
farmer  boys.  The  fact  is  established  beyond  ques- 
tion that  it  is  in  our  farm  homes  that  the  men  of 
strong  bodies  and  determined  will,  of  healthy  charac- 
ter and  high  purpose,  are  reared  ;  who  go  out  into 
the  world  equipped  to  fight  its  battles,  and,  while 
winning  in  the  race  a  high  position  for  themselves, 
help  to  elevate  society  and  leave  the  world  better 
than  they  found  it. 

Looking  for  the  reasons  for  the  success  of  farmers' 
sons  and  daughters,  we  find  that  the  farm  furnishes 
employment  suited  to  the  child  and  interesting,  also, 
so  that  it  acquires  almost  unconsciously  habits  of  in- 
dustry. He  is  also  brought  in  contact  with  nature 
continually,  and  led  to  investigate  the  secrets  of 
growth  in  plants  and  animals.  The  farmer  boy's 
evenings  are  usually  spent  at  home,  and  are  more 
likely  to  be  devoted  to  reading  than  those  of  the  city 
boy,  where  the  temptation  is  great  to  spend  his  time 
on  the  street  or  in  the  stores.  Undoubtedly  the 
best  product  of  the  farm  is  the  manhood  and  woman- 
hood it  develops  in  our  sons  and  daughters,  but  as 
most  plants  grow  best  with  congenial  surroundings 
and  cultivation,  so  to  give  our  children  the  best 
chance  we  should  make  our  homes  attractive  within 
and  without.  If  any  one  raises  the  objection  that 
farm  profits  are  not  large  enough  so  that  the  farmer 
can  afford  this,  I  reply  that  the  difference  in  cost  be- 
tween an  attractive  and  an  unattractive  home  is 
small.  In  the  house  a  few  good  pictures  on  the 


THE    HOME    ON    THE    FARM.  293 

walls  (and  the  art  of  to-day  produces  them  mar- 
vellously cheap),  a  moderate  amount  of  money  spent 
in  good  books  and  papers,  and  grass  and  trees  without, 
may  make  all  the  difference  between  a  home  that  edu- 
cates in  the  right  direction,  and  the  remembrance  of 
which  will  be  a  joy  to  the  child  in  after  life,  and  one 
that  repels,  and  from  which  the  child  will  escape  as 
soon  as  possible.  The  more  attractive  we  make  the 
farm  home,  and  the  more  intelligent  we  make  our 
children,  the  happier  their  lives  on  the  farm  will  be, 
and  when  they  leave  the  farm  the  better  equipped 
they  will  be  for  a  happy,  useful  life. 

The  question  of  literature  in  the  home  is  one  of  too 
much  importance  to  pass  over  lightly.  I  presume 
that  my  own  experience  is  that  of  many  others,  in 
that  my  opportunities  for  a  school  education  were  lim- 
ited, as  my  father  emigrated  to  Indiana  in  1838,  when 
I  was  a  small  boy,  and  our  schools  were  not  only  in- 
different, but  only  continued  five  or  six  months  of  the 
year,  and  at  twenty  years  old  I  had  only  attended  the 
common  school,  and  but  three  months  a  year  for 
the  last  six  years;  but  my  parents  spoke  good  English 
and  furnished  good  books  and  papers,  and  for  more 
than  fifty-five  years  past,  I  have  read  the  Youths 
Companion,  and  I  believe  that  this  was  the  best  part  of 
my  education.  We  live  in  an  age  of  good  and  marvel- 
lously cheap  literature,  and  the  wise  parent  will  fur- 
nish his  children  with  wholesome  books  and  papers, 
and  they  will  soon  form  a  taste  for  that  which  is  good, 
and  there  will  be  no  danger  of  their  reading  such  as 


294   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

are  demoralizing.  An  encyclopedia,  if  the  children 
are  taught  to  use  it,  is  a  wonderful  help  to  intelli- 
gence, and  it  is  now  within  reach  of  every  one.  Ten 
dollars  a  year  invested  in  papers  will  be  worth  more 
than  four  times  that  amount  spent  in  sending  children 
to  school,  if  the  home  influences  are  such  as  to  help, 
and  the  child  is  taught  to  read  intelligently,  by  which 
I  mean  that  they  read  understandingly,  going  to  the 
dictionary  and  encyclopedia  for  what  they  do  not  un- 
derstand. Taught  in  this  way  at  home,  they  will  get 
double  benefit  from  attending  school.  If,  with  these 
helps  we  have  added  a  helpful,  kindly  spirit  in  the 
family,  the  parents  seeking  to  govern  the  children  in 
a  way  that  will  teach  them  self-government,  and  gain 
their  confidence,  then  we  may  reasonably  expect  the 
farm  homes  of  our  land  to  send  out  strong,  earnest 
men  and  women,  well  equipped  for  the  battle  of  life. 
One  other  book  found  in  every  home  should  not  be 
neglected.  The  Bible,  the  "  Best  of  Classics,"  should 

o 

be  read  daily,  and  studied,  for  no  book  will  give  more 
mental  and  spiritual  stimulus,  or  teach  purer  morals, 
and  aside  from  the  question  of  religion,  and  viewed 
only  from  the  educational  standpoint,  familiarity  with 
this  "  Book  of  Books,"  pays. 

The  furnishing  of  the  home  should  always  be  within 
the  means.  Especially  make  the  living-room  bright 
and  cheerful.  Avoid  steps  up  and  down  in  the 
kitchen.  If  possible,  have  fuel  and  water  on  the 
same  level  as  the  kitchen  and  dining-room,  as  step- 
ping up  and  down  when  carrying  burdens  has  broken 


THE  HOME  ON  THE  FARM.          295 

down  the  health  of  many  a  mother.  See  to  it  that 
cupboards  and  closets  are  convenient  to  where  their 
contents  will  be  used,  for  one  step  saved  in  passing 
from  cupboard  to  table  means  ten  thousand  in  a  few 
years.  Often  the  cutting  of  a  door  will  save  the  wife 
a  hundred  steps  a  day,  and  we  owe  it  to  her  to  make 
her  work  as  easy  as  possible. 

• 

AROUND  THE  HOUSE. 

The  difference  in  cost  between  attractive  home 
surroundings  and  those  which  repel  is  very  small, 
while  the  influence  on  our  children  and  the  added  hap- 
piness to  ourselves  is  large.  A  want  of  order  in  the 
arrangement  and  location  of  out-buildings,  neglect  of 
little  things,  such  as  allowing  old  lumber  and  ash 
piles  to  accumulate,  broken  branches  of  trees  to-  re- 
main where  they  fell  for  months  or  years,  weeds  and 
sprouts  to  grow  undisturbed,  and  grass  to  remain  un- 
cut during  the  summer,  rickety  fences  in  various 
stages  of  dilapidation,  and  stock  pastured  in  the  door- 
yard,  or  the  fowls  allowed  to  live  about  the  door,  all 
or  any  of  these  help  to  make  an  untidy,  unattractive 
home.  Attention  to  a  few  points  which  I  will  name 
will  give  an  air  of  neatness  and  comfort  to  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  farm  home.  First,  a  good  lawn,  and 
to  have  this  in  perfection  the  grading  must  be  right, 
and  in  starting  new,  this  is  easy.  The  foundation  of 
the  house  should  be  raised  high  enough  so  that  there 
can  be  a  gentle  slope  from  the  house  to  a  selected 
point,  the  distance  of  which  from  the  house  must  be 


296   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

determined  by  the  size  of  the  grounds  and  the  slope 
of  the  land.  The  grading  should  be  done  in  the  sum- 
mer or  early  autumn,  and  if  there  are  places  where 
there  must  be  considerable  fill,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
let  it  settle  and  refill  so  as  to  keep  the  grade  level. 
If  there  are  spots  where  all  the  surface  soil  is  removed, 
they  should  be  covered  with  an  inch  or  two  of  good 
soil  and  dressed  with  fine  manure  or  superphosphate. 
The  best  time  to  seed  a  lawn  is  the  last  half  of  Sep- 
tember, and  I  would  use  only  timothy  and  blue  grass 
seed,  the  first  for  immediate  effect,  and  the  last  for 
permanancy.  Use  a  quart  of  timothy  seed  to  each 
ten  square  rods,  and  six  quarts  of  clean  blue  grass 
seed.  Protect  it  the  first  winter  with  a  light  covering 
of  stable  manure  applied  after  the  land  freezes,  and 
rake  this  off  in  the  spring,  and  begin  using  the  lawn 
mower  as  soon  as  the  grass  can  be  cut  with  it.  An  ex- 
cellent lawn  mower  can  be  had  now  for  about  $5.00, 
and  it  is  indispensable  if  one  would  have  a  perfect 
lawn.  If  the  house  is  already  built  and  trees  grow- 
ing, the  grading  will  be  more  difficult,  but  if  there 
are  inequalities  which  make  it  difficult  to  use  a  lawn 
mower,  earth  can  be  drawn  onto  the  sod  and  spread 
to  level  it  and  be  re-seeded  so  as  to  improve  the  lawn 
greatly. 

TREES  AROUND  THE  HOME. 

No  other  one  thing  can  be  made  to  add  so  much 
to  the  beauty  and  comfort  of  a  country  home  as 
trees,  if  wisely  selected  and  planted.  I  would  never 


THE    HOME    ON    THE    FARM.  297 

plant  fruit  trees  in  the  door  yard,  first,  because  we 
want  to  plant  for  permanancy,  and  all  of  our  fruit 
trees  are  more  subject  to  disease  and  accident  than 
forest  trees,  and  they  are  more  likely  to  be  infested 
with  insects,  and  the  dropping  fruit  attracts  flies 
and  is  a  temptation  to  the  children  to  eat  when  im- 
mature and  unwholesome.  These  should  be  con- 
fined to  the  orchard,  which  may  be  near  the  house, 
but  the  door-yard  should  not  be  the  orchard.  The 
arrangement  and  number  of  the  trees  must  depend 
on  the  size  and  shape  of  the  grounds.  The  first  rule 
that  I  would  lay  down  is,  that  no  forest  tree  should 
be  set  to  remain  permanently  nearer  than  thirty  feet 
from  the  house.  If  the  house  is  without  shade,  I 
would  plant  quick-growing  trees,  such  as  white 
maples,  near  it,  to  be  removed  when  the  more  per- 
manent trees  planted  at  a  greater  distance  will  afford 
shade.  Second,  I  would  not  plant  in  rows  at  regu- 
lar distances  apart  unless  along  the  highway  in  front 
of  the  house,  but  would  rather  plant  in  groups  or 
scattered  singly  in  imitation  of  nature,  and  always 
with  openings  so  that  the  sun  can  shine  upon  all 
parts  of  the  house,  if  possible,  at  some  time  of  the 
day.  One  large  elm  or  a  group  of  maples  directly 
south  of  the  house  will  break  the  noonday  sun  and 
temper  the  heat,  and  will,  at  the  same  time,  allow 
the  sun's  rays  to  strike  the  house  both  morning  and 
afternoon.  If  the  land  can  be  spared,  it  gives  a 
pretty  effect  to  plant  a  quarter  or  half  acre  to  the 
south  and  south-west  of  the  house  in  a  miniature 


298   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

forest,  and  when  this  is  done,  plant  quite  a  variety 
of  trees.  I  have  such  a  plot  containing  hard  and 
soft  maple,  ash,  elm,  box  alder,  walnut,  catalpa,  dog- 
wood, persimmon  and  crab  apple.  Whether  you 
plant  many  or  few,  be  sure  that  the  hard  maple  has 
a  place  on  account  of  its  beautiful  autumn  foliage. 
If  I  was  confined  to  three  varieties,  I  would  plant 
the  hard  or  sugar  maples,  elm  and  ash,  as  they  are 
all  graceful  in  growth,  tough  in  fibre,  and  permanent. 
Avoid  evergreens  except  for  a  background,  or  for 
wind  breaks  to  the  west  or  north.  It  is  difficult  to 
get  grass  to  grow  under  them,  and  those  which  bear 
cones  give  trouble,  as  they  drop  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year  and  are  unsightly  and  in  the  way  of  using  the 
lawn  mower.  I  speak  from  long  experience,  for  I 
set  ten  evergreens  in  my  door  yard  thirty  years  ago, 
but  with  my  present  experience  I  would  not  set  ever- 
greens nearer  than  100  feet,  and  always  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  prevailing  winds.  If  I  was  starting  again 
on  a  farm  as  a  young  man,  I  would  set  a  full  acre  of 
sugar  maples  near  either  the  house  or  the  barn,  start- 
ing with  1,300  to  the  acre,  setting  them  four  by  eight 
feet.  I  should  expect  to  sell  enough  shade  trees 
from  the  acre  to  give  me  a  good  profit,  and  would 
reduce  the  number  to  about  250  or  300  of  the  best 
to  stand  permanently.  All  young  trees  when  set  out 
should  be  cultivated  for  a  few  years  until  they  get  a 
thrifty  start,  but  in  the  door  yard  mulching  may  be 
substituted  for  cultivation,  but  the  maples  being  set 
in  rows  could  be  cultivated  by  horse  power.  I  would 


THE  HOME  ON  THE  FARM.          2Q9 

plant  seedlings  one  year  old,  one  or  two  feet  high. 
In  many  places  young  seedlings  could  be  found  in 
the  woods,  or  they  could  be  easily  grown  in  a 
nursery.  In  my  judgment  an  acre  of  trees  of  this 
kind  would  be  worth  $500,  when  large  enough  to 
be  tapped,  and  with  the  modern  patent  spiles  which 
require  only  a  three-eighths  inch  bit,  the  trees  can  be 
tapped  when  six  inches  in  diameter,  as  the  holes  will 
heal  over  in  a  single  summer. 

SHRUBS  AXD  FLOWERS 

Must  have  some  place  around  the  farm  home,  but 
the  first  should  be  planted  to  only  a  limited  extent 
and  well  cared  for,  or  they  mar  rather  than  help  the 
appearance  of  the  grounds.  When  set  here  and 
there  over  the  yard  they  spoil  the  lawn  and  are  usu- 
ally neglected  and  allowed  to  sprout  and  multiply 
until  the  result  is  a  thicket  of  sprouts  and  weeds. 
It  is  better  to  confine  them  to  groups  at  the  back- 
ground or  border  of  the  lawn,  and  only  plant  such  as 
you  are  sure  you  can  take  care  of.  A  lilac,  snowball, 
japonica  and  holly  will  form  a  pretty  group,  and  a 
hedge  of  roses  of  various  kinds  in  a  border,  neatly 
cultivated  and  trimmed  so  as  to  keep  them  within 
bounds,  will  be  sufficient.  A  few  beds  of  showy 
annual  flowers  of  easy  cultivation  to  beautify  the 
grounds  and  furnish  flowers  to  cut  for  the  table  will 
be  found  advantageous.  If  I  was  limited  to  a  single 
flower  it  would  be  the  nasturtium.  The  foliage  is 
beautiful,  the  flowers  brilliant  and  of  great  vatiety  of 


3OO   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

color,  and  they  bloom  from  June  until  autumn.  For 
a  showy  bedding  plant,  nothing  excels  the  petunia. 
They  will  bloom  for  fully  five  months,  and  the 
blotched  and  striped  varieties  are  very  beautiful. 
Verbenas,  phlox,  pansies,  asters  and  daisies  are  all 
satisfactory,  and  a  few  of  the  old-fashioned  four- 
o'clocks  should  be  grown  for  the  children.  A  row  of 
sweet  peas  will  give  an  abundance  of  fragrant  flowers 
for  about  two  months  if  the  blossoms  are  kept  closely 
cut  and  not  allowed  to  form  seed.  They  should  be 
planted  as  early  as  the  land  can  be  worked.  If  con- 
fined to  three  varieties  of  flowers  that  could  be 
grown  with  the  least  trouble  and  give  the  most  satis- 
faction, I  would  name  the  nasturtium,  petunia  and 
sweet  pea,  and  with  these  the  table  need  not  be 
without  flowers  from  June  ist  to  November. 

WALKS  AND  DRIVES. 

Perhaps  in  no  other  one  thing  is  there  so  great 
lack  around  the  farm  home  as  in  good  walks  to  the 
out-buildings  and  street,  and  the  drive  by  which  the 
house  and  barn  is  reached,  yet  nothing  adds  so  much 
to  the  appearance  and  comfort  as  these.  Without 
walks  the  mud  is  carried  into  the  house  on  the  shoes 
every  time  any  one  steps  out  of  doors  in  muddy 
weather,  making  the  home  untidy  and  causing  much 
unnecessary  labor  to  the  housekeeper  and  wear  to 
the  carpets.  The  drives  should  be  located  where 
they  will  be  most  convenient  and  the  road-bed  be 
well  rounded  up  to  give  surface  drainage  and  the 


THE    HOME    ON    THE    FARM.  301 

edges  kept  cut  and  free  from  weeds  and,  if  possible, 
the  road-bed  should  be  covered  with  gravel  or  broken 
stone.  Such  a  drive,  kept  clear  of  straw  and  trash, 
will  help  rather  than  mar  the  appearance  of  the  yard. 
1  prefer  concrete  or  boards  to  gravel  for  the  walks 
near  the  house.  I  prefer  the  concrete  for  the  front 
walk,  but  it  will  cost  from  eight  to  twelve  cents  a 
square  foot,  while  a  good  plank  walk  can  be  made 
for  three  or  four  cents  a  square  foot.  The  concrete, 
however,  will  last  indefinitely,  while  a  board  walk 
must  be  renewed  perhaps  once  in  about  ten  years. 
To  make  a  concrete  walk,  Portland  cement  must  be 
used,  as  the  cheap  grades  of  cement  will  not  endure 
the  frost.  An  excavation  should  be  made  fifteen 
inches  deep  and  filled  to  within  four  inches  of  the 
top  with  broken  stone  or  coarse  gravel  and  tamped 
solid.  If  the  land  is  wet  and  spongy,  a  line  of  two- 
inch  tile  should  be  laid  to  drain  the-  walk.  Strips 
two  by  four  inches  should  be  staked  solidly  at  the 
sides  to  keep  the  walk  straight,  and  the  grade  should 
be  established.  The  concrete  for  the  foundation  is 
prepared  by  mixing  six  parts  of  coarse  gravel,  or  four 
parts  of  finely  broken  stone  and  two  parts  of  sharp 
coarse  sand  with  one  part  of  the  cement.  This  should 
be  thoroughly  mixed  dry.  It  is  recommended  that  it 
be  shoveled  over  four  times,  but  it  can  be  more  thor- 
oughly and  easily  mixed  if  one  man  uses  a  shovel 
and  the  other  a  steel  rake  and  as  each  shovelfull  is 
thrown  up  the  rake  is  used  to  spread  and  mix  it. 
It  should  be  turned  twice  dry  and  the  third  time  it 


3O2   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

is  shoveled  or  raked  a  man  or  boy  should  sprinkle 
it  from  a  water-pot.  It  should  not  be  made  dripping 
wet,  but  should  be  dampened  so  that  when  pressed 
in  the  hand  it  will  retain  its  shape  and  show  the 
marks  of  the  fingers.  This  should  now  be  tamped 
solid  to  within  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  the  top  of 
your  walk  and  it  should  then  be  finished  with  cement 
made  with  two  parts  of  sharp  clean  sand  to  one  of 
cement.  Mix  thoroughly  dry  and  wet  and  fill  to  the 
top  of  the  strips  and  level  with  a  straight-edge,  and 
float  and  trowel  until  the  surface  is  smooth.  A  bar- 
rel of  cement  will  make  about  fifty  square  feet  of  walk, 
and  for  house  walks  three  feet  is  wide  enough,  so  that 
a  barrel  will  lay  just  about  one  rod  in  length  of  walk. 
It  is  best  to  only  lay  a  section  of  eight  or  ten  feet  at 
a  time.  The  only  trouble  will  be  to  finish  the  edges 
right,  and  this  is  done  by  pressing  the  blade  of  the 
trowel  down  three  or  four  inches  and  crowding  the 
cement  back  from  the  edge  strips  for  about  an  inch 
at  the  top,  but  running  down  to  a  point  below  and  fill 
this  with  pure  dry  cement.  This  will  draw  moisture 
from  the  cement  and  harden  so  as  to  give  a  smooth, 
hard  edge,  but  as  soon  as  it  sets,  which  will  be  soon, 
remove  the  edge  strips  and  with  a  small  trowel 
smooth  and  shape  the  edges.  If  unaccustomed  to 
using  a  trowel,  it  will  be  well  to  get  a  mason  to  help 
you.  When  the  walk  is  completed  lay  strips  along 
the  edges  an  inch  or  two  higher  than  the  walk  and 
cover  it  to  protect  it  from  the  sun.  This  covering 
may  be  of  boards  or  tarpaulin  or  other  cloth,  and 


THE  HOME  OX  THE  FARM.  303 

twice  a  day  wet  the  walk  thoroughly  for  a  week,  or 
until  it  has  thoroughly  hardened.  It  is  best  to  divide 
the  walk  into  sections  four  or  five  feet  long.  This  is 
done  before  it  hardens  by  laying  a  straight-edge 
across,  and  with  a  trowel  cutting  down  through  the 
cement  and  concrete  to  the  dry  gravel.  The  advan- 
tage of  this  is  that  if  there  should  be  a  defect  in  any 
place  in  your  walk  a  section  can  be  removed  and  the 
walk  repaired  with  little  trouble.  The  cost  of  this 
walk  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  convenience  of 
material  sand,  and  gravel.  The  cement  will  cost 
from  $3  to  $4.50  per  barrel.  This  makes  the  best 
possible  platform  for  a  well,  and  is  cheap  and  excel- 
lent for  a  floor  to  a  dairy-house,  carriage-house,  poul- 
try-house or  hog-house,  and  for  all  these  three  inches 
of  concrete  and  one-half  inch  of  topping  will  be 
sufficient  so  that  the  cost  will  not  be  much  greater 
than  for  a  board  floor,  as  a  barrel  of  cement  will  lay 
about  100  square  feet.  Until  within  a  few  years  all 
of  our  Portland  cement  was  imported,  but  now  it  is 
made  of  the  best  quality  in  some  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  is  sold  at  lower  prices  than  the  imported 
article.  The  Buckeye  Portland  Cement  Company  of 
Bellefontaine,  Ohio,  makes  a  first-class  article,  as  I 
know  from  having  used  it  in  flooring  my  stables. 
Board  walks  made  two  feet  wide  will  give  good  satis- 
faction at  the  rear  of  the  house  to  the  barn  and  other 
out-buildings.  It  will  pay  to  make,  them  of  a  good, 
durable  kind  of  lumber,  and  if  properly  constructed 
they  will  last  for  a  long  time.  Place  supports  on  a 


304  A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

flat  stone  so  as  to  raise  them  clear  of  the  ground,  and 
nail  strips  of  board  across  them.  The  strips  should 
be  two  inches  square,  but  two  by  four  inches  may  be 
used  and  should  be  laid  only  sixteen  inches  apart,  as 
this  will  give  a  stiffer  walk  with  less  spring  to  it  than 
if  laid  wider,  and  as  the  strips  of  board  two  feet  long 
will  only  project  two  inches  on  a  side,  it  will  be  no 
disadvantage.  The  boards  should  be  narrow,  not 
wider  than  six  inches  and  I  prefer  three  or  four,  as 
wide  boards  are  likely  to  cup  and  hold  water  and  to 
remain  wet  on  the  under  side  and  rot.  Lay  the 
boards  with  cracks  an  inch  wide  between  them,  as 
this  will  give  a  circulation  of  air  under  them  which 
will  dry  out  the  walk  and  make  it  last  longer,  and  the 
walk  will  also  be  cleaner,  as  the  gravel  and  earth 
which  drops  from  the  shoes  will  be  pushed  through 
the  cracks.  Besides  there  is  a  saving  of  lumber,  as 
with  three-inch  stuff  there  will  be  a  gain  of  an  inch 
for  each  strip.  A  walk  of  this  kind  made  wider  of 
dressed  lumber  and  kept  painted  will  answer  for  the 
front  of  the  house. 

FENCES  AND  OUT-BUILDINGS. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  there  be  out-build- 
ings on  the  farm  and  they  should  be  so  constructed, 
arranged  and  located  as  not  to  mar  the  harmony  of 
the  surroundings.  I  often  pass  a  farm  on  which  an 
elegant  new  house  has  been  erected,  but  which  is 
surrounded  with  from  six  to  twelve  dilapidated  out- 
buildings dumped  down  without  any  order,  some  of 


THE  HOME  ON  THE  FARM.  305 

them  past  use,  with  roof  falling  in,  and,  to  make 
matters  worse,  they  are  surrounded  with  ill-shaped 
lots  enclosed  by  crooked  fences  in  various  stages  of 
decay,  rendering  the  home  surroundings  unsightly 
and  almost  repulsive,  when  a  little  attention  to  con- 
struction and  arrangement  would  make  all  harmoni- 
ous. To  this  end  I  advise,  first,  that  old,  disused 
buildings  be  torn  down,  that  new  buildings  needed 
be  built  of  dressed  timber  and  painted,  that  all 
buildings  be  set  in  range,  not  fronting  any  way  and 
every  way,  that  all  be  placed  on  a  solid  foundation 
so  as  to  remain  perpendicular  and  not  lean  toward 
every  point  of  the  compass,  and  that  so  far  as  pos- 
sible the  out-buildings  should  be  back  of  the  house 
and  at  some  distance  from  it.  The  coal  and  wood 
house  should  be  convenient  to  the  house  and,  if  pos- 
sible, with  the  floor  on  the  same  level  as  the  kitchen 
and  dining-room.  The  privy  should  be  at  the  rear, 
if  a  separate  building,  and  surrounded  by  an  ever- 
green hedge  or  trellised  vines  to  give  privacy,  and 
under  no  conditions  would  I  tolerate  a  vault  under 
it,  for  it  is  certain  to  become  offensive,  and  there  is 
great  danger  that  in  time  it  will  pollute  the  drinking 
water.  Make  it  a  dry  earth  closet  by  placing  under 
it  galvanized  iron  receptacles,  in  which  dry  earth 
shall  be  used  daily  to  deoderize  and  which  can  be 
easily  carried  out  and  emptied  weekly.  With  this 
arrangement  the  privy  as  a  separate  building  can  be 
abolished  and  a  corner  of  the  wood-house  parti- 
tioned off  for  this  purpose.  The  room  should  be 
20 


306   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

well  lighted  and  ventilated  and  kept  in  good  order. 
Build  pigeries  and  poultry  houses  in  the  same  gen- 
eral style  of  architecture,  with  a  good  projection  at 
roof  and  gables,  and  paint  in  the  same  shades  of 
color.  I  shall  speak  of  barns  later.  Fences  are 
only  a  necessary  evil  and  always  mar  the  appear- 
ance of  the  grounds,  and  as  far  as  possible  should  be 
dispensed  with,  and  what  fences  are  required  near 
the  house  I  would  have  as  inconspicuous  as  possible. 
There  are  forms  of  woven  wire  fence  which  are  dura- 
ble and  that  will  turn  all  kinds  of  stock,  and  these 
can  be  used  and  a  grapevine  trellis  placed  between 
them  and  the  house  so  that  they  will  be  almost  en- 
tirely hidden.  I  prefer  to  enclose  a  poultry  yard 
rather  than  to  "pale"  in  the  garden,  for  I  want  no 
border  of  weeds  around  the  edges  of  the  garden  and 
wish  to  cultivate  it  as  far  as  possible  with  horse 
power. 

THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

can  be  made  the  most  attractive  spot  on  the  farm, 
and  by  far  the  most  profitable,  as  under  wise  manage- 
ment a  fourth  acre  of  land  will  produce  what  will 
cost  in  the  market  more  than  $100  a  year,  and  give 
a  succession  of  choice,  fresh  vegetables  from  April 
to  November,  and  the  cellar  stocked  for  winter.  If 
the  family  is  large,  I  would  advise  that  a  half  acre  be 
prepared  for  a  garden  spot,  rather  than  less.  Locate 
the  home  garden  as  convenient  as  possible  to  the 
house.  This  will  save  many  steps,  as  for  five  months 


THE  HOME  OX  THE  FARM.  307 

of  the  year  something  will  be  used  from  the  garden 
every  day,  and  the  work  can  be  done  at  odd  moments 
without  the  loss  of  time  necessary  if  one  must  go  a 
long  distance  to  the  garden.  Besides,  a  neat,  well- 
kept  garden  is  pleasant  for  the  wife  to  look  upon  as 
she  works  in  her  kitchen.  My  garden  conies  to 
within  twenty  feet  of  the  kitchen  door,  and  I  would 
not  be  willing  to  have  it  farther  away.  I  prefer  to 
locate  the  garden  on  land  slightly  sloping  to  the  east 
or  south,  but  no  water  should  be  allowed  to  flow  over 
it  from  adjoining  land.  It  should  be  thoroughly 
under-drained ;  nothing  will  pay  better,  and  I  would 
advise  three-inch  tile  drains  every  thirty  feet,  or  even 
closer,  if  the  land  is  very  heavy.  Make  it  rich.  If  you 
are  starting  new  and  the  land  has  not  been  manured 
before,  I  would  plow  under  a  coat  of  manure,  and 
then  top  dress  after  it  was  plowed,  and  after  that 
give  a  light  top  dressing  each  year.  On  thoroughly 
drained  land  it  pays  to  plow  in  the  fall,  and  then, 
when  the  land  dries  off  in  the  spring,  a  good  harrow- 
ing with  an  acme,  disk,  or  spring-tooth  harrow,  will 
give  a  perfect  seed  bed.  It  is  wise  to  locate  the 
garden  on  loamy,  black  land,  if  possible,  as  it  is 
warmer  and  earlier  than  the  light-colored  clay  soils ; 
and  if  it  must  be  located  on  a  heavy  clay  spot,  it  will 
often  pay  to  draw  sand  on  it  to  temper  it,  and  it  will 
be  a  great  help  to  occasionally  grow  a  crop  of  clover 
and  turn  under  on  a  part  of  the  garden,  as  no  other 
crop  will  so  favorably  affect  the  mechanical  condition 
of  the  land,  and  it  will  add  humus  and  nitrogen  to 


308   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  soil.  The  most  important  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
get  the  garden  clear  of  weed  seed.  This  will  reduce 
the  labor  of  cultivating  more  than  half,  and  add 
greatly  to  the  appearance  of  the  garden.  The  rule 
must  be  that  no  weed  shall  ever  be  allowed  to  go  to 
seed  in  the  garden.  This  is  not  a  difficult  rule  to 
carry  out,  and  after  a  few  years  brings  its  own  reward. 
As  a  help  to  this,  plant  such  crops  as  mature  at  the 
same  time  adjacent  to  each  other,  and  as  soon  as  they 
are  past  use  remove  them  and  work  the  land  thor- 
oughly and  plant  something  else.  It  pays  to  keep 
the  land  at  work  all  summer  growing  useful  crops, 
but  never  pays  to  grow  weed  seed.  For  example  : 
Early  peas,  lettuce,  spinach  and  radishes  are  all  past 
use  in  June,  and  about  nine  farmers  out  of  ten  leave 
this  land  to  grow  weeds  for  the  rest  of  the  summer. 
I  plant  these  four  early  crops  beside  each  other,  and 
as  soon  as  they  are  past  use,  clear  the  land  and  put  in 
some  later  crop,  such  as  late  tomatoes,  cabbage, sweet 
corn,  beans,  etc.,  etc.  Many  farmers  do  not  know 
what  crops  will  endure  frost  and  what  will  not.  The 
following  are  all  hardy,  and  we  plant  them  just  as 
early  as  our  under-drained,  fall-plowed  land  can  be 
worked  in  the  spring:  Beets,  lettuce,  spinach,  onions, 
cress,  celery,  cabbage,  radishes,  and  peas,  may  all  be 
planted  early,  and  will  not  be  injured  if  the  ground 
freezes  hard  after  they  are  planted,  and  slightly  after 
they  are  up.  The  first  thing  we  use  from  the  garden 
in  the  spring  is  rhubarb,  early  in  April,  and  about  the 
2Oth  of  April  we  begin  using  asparagus,  and  con- 


THE  HOME  ON  THE  FARM.  309 

tinue  until  peas  are  in  use,  which  is  early  in  June. 
Lettuce,  radishes,  spinach  and  cress  are  in  use  the 
latter  part  of  May,  and  from  the  ist  of  June  until 
frost,  and  later,  we  have  a  constant  supply  and  suc- 
cession of  vegetables  in  great  variety  and  abundance, 
and  the  garden  furnishes  fully  half  of  our  living. 
We  plant  peas  about  four  times,  which  gives  us  a 
succession  from  the  ist  of  June  till  August.  We 
plant  the  small  early  varieties  of  sweet  corn  in  April, 
and  continue  to  plant  once  in  two  or  three  weeks 
until  July  4th,  which  gives  us  green  corn  for  nearly 
one  hundred  successive  days.  Of  small  fruits,  a  few 
square  rods  in  each  of  the  following  will  furnish  a 
succession  for  many  weeks,  strawberries,  raspberries, 
blackberries,  currants  and  grapes.  A  small  plot  of 
each,  well  cared  for,  will  give  better  results  than  twice 
as  much  neglected.  Attention  to  these  things  will 
enable  the  farmer  to  enjoy  in  abundance  luxuries 
which  others,  who  earn  their  living  by  their  labor, 
and  are  nearly  of  the  same  means  as  the  farmer,  must 
use  sparingly. 

THE  FARM  A  BASE  OF  SUPPLIES. 

The  wise  farmer  will  not  only  have  a  good  garden 
and  small  fruit  plantation,  but  will  also  plan  to  fur- 
nish as  nearly  as  possible  all  the  provisions  for  the 
family.  Eggs  and  poultry  of  the  very  best  can  be 
had  in  the  greatest  abundance.  Butter,  milk  and 
cream  of  the  best  quality  and  always  fresh  and  good 
can  be  had  in  unlimited  amounts,  and  these  are  costly 


3IO   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

luxuries  in  the  city  and  found  in  abundance  and  per- 
fection only  on  the  tables  of  the  wealthy.  Then  the 
family  meats  can  be  home  produced,  for  pig  pork  fed 
for  lean  is  both  wholesome  and  palatable  and  can  be 
cured  and  kept  the  entire  year.  Fresh  beef  can  be 
had  by  exchanging  with  neighbors  all  winter  and  can 
be  dried  for  summer  use  and  an  occasional  lamb 
during  the  year  will  give  variety  to  the  home  fur- 
nished meats.  It  seems  to  me  to  be  one  lame  place 
in  farm  management  that  so  many  farmers  buy  at  the 
groceries  that  which  might  be  produced  at  half  the 
cost  and  of  far  better  quality  at  home.  Too  many 
farmers  stop  at  the  production  of  wheat,  corn  and 
grass,  and  when,  as  at  present  wheat  is  fifty  cents  a 
bushel,  pay  the  price  of  an  acre  of  wheat  for  what 
they  might  have  produced  on  twenty  square  rods. 
The  wise  fanner  will  produce  a  surplus  of  such  things 
as  his  grocer  will  buy  and  sell  him  enough  so  that  at 
his  monthly  settlements  the  balance  will  be  in  his 
own  favor  rather  than  that  of  the  grocer.  Even  a 
small  farm  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  family  sup- 
plies which  often  will  be  worth  to  the  farmer  more  than 
eight  per  cent,  on  the  taxable  value  of  the  farm.  I 
know  a  case  in  which  the  owner  of  a  farm  containing 
sixty  acres  of  tillable  land  and  thirty  acres  of  pasture 
kept  an  account  of  his  sales  and  made  a  yearly  esti- 
mate of  what  the  farm  furnished  his  family  for  a 
series  of  years,  and  as  this  man  was  engaged  in  other 
work  and  hired  all  his  farm  work  done,  he  could  tell 
just  what  it  cost  to  produce  his  crops.  The  statement 


THE    HOME    ON    THE    FARM.  3!  I 

rendered  was  for  an  average  of  ten  years.  The  farm 
was  managed  with  reference  to  first  supplying  the 
family  wants  and  then  to  meet  the  labor  expense  and 
make  a  profit.  Mixed  farming  was  followed  and  the 
sales  were  from  fruit,  potatoes,  Irish  and  sweet,  hay, 
clover,  seed,  a  moderate  amount  of  dairy  and  poultry 
products,  pigs,  an  occasional  cow,  horse  or  mule, 
wheat,  etc.  The  farm,  tools,  and  teams,  were  valued 
on  the  tax  duplicate  at  $3,500,  but  he  made  his  esti- 
mate on  a  basis  of  a  valuation  of  $4,000.  For  the 
ten  years  the  average  cash  sales  from  this  farm  were 
$650.  The  average  cost  of  labor  $330,  and  this  in- 
cluded board,  for  the  help  boarded  themselves.  This 
deducted  from  the  cash  received  left  $320,  which  is 
just  eight  per  cent,  on  the  investment.  He  claimed, 
however,  that  this  was  less  than  half  of  his  profit  and 
gave  the  following  estimate  of  what  the  farm  fur- 
nished his  family  each  year  : 

House  rent , $150  oo 

Milk,  butter    and  cream 75  oo 

Vegetables 5  2  oo 

Fruits 50  oo 

Poultry  and  eggs 50  oo 

Bread  -stuff. 32  oo 

Meats. i . .  • « 75  oo 

Total ,.   $484  oo 

which  represents  just  twelve  per  cent,  on  the  $4,000 
investment.  This  gentleman  insisted  that  he  did 
not  give  the  farm  all  the  credit  it  deserved,  for  he 
kept  a  driving  horse,  which  was  fed  from  the  products 


312   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

of  the  farm,  and  the  rent  of  his  house  was  much  less 
than  one  as  good  would  cost  in  a  village  and  either 
the  dairy  products  or  vegetable  the  family  used  would 
cost  over  $100  a  year  bought  in  the  market  and 
would  not  be  of  as  good  qualty.  But  if  we  leave  out 
the  house  rent  and  take  the  other  figures  as  they 
stand,  the  farm  is  still  credited  with  an  amount  which 
represents  over  eight  per  cent,  on  its  value.  I  have 
given  this  statement,  which  I  believe  to  be  a  fair  one, 
because  it  is*  my  opinion  that  few  farmers  plan  to 
make  the  farm  supply  the  family  wants  as  nearly  as 
they  ought  and  might,  and  in  estimating  the  profits  of 
the  farm  are  likely  to  overlook  the  items  of  home 
supplies  which  it  has  furnished.  Yet  I  can  see  no 
reason  why  the  farm  should  not  receive  credit  for  all 
it  furnishes  the  family,  as  well  as  for  that  which  is 
sold.  I  believe  no  other  class  of  men  of  the  same 
means  can  afford  so  many  table  luxuries  as  the  farmer 
who  plans  to  make  the  farm  first  of  all  serve  the 
family.  One  thing  not  to  be  overlooked  is,  that  all 
which  comes  on  the  farmer's  table  from  home  sup- 
plies is  fresh  and  unadulterated,  while  those  who  rely 
on  the  groceries  get  stale  vegetables  and  many  pro- 
ducts of  doubtful  purity. 

LARGE  OR  SMALL  FARMS. 

The  question  as  to  whether  a  large  or  small  farm 
is  best,  is  not  to  be  settled  in  a  paragraph  or  by  a 
sweeping  decision,  for  it  will  depend  to  some  extent 
on  the  individual  and  to  some  extent  on  the  amount 


THE  HOME  OX  THE  FARM.  313 

of  capital  invested.  Some  men  have  the  business 
capacity  to  carry  on  a  large  farm,  and  when  this  is 
done  the  owner  can  use  to  good  advantage  machinery 
that  would  not  pay  on  a  small  farm.  He  can  also  raise 
and  feed  stock  to  better  advantage  than  on  a  small 
farm,  and  with  a  car  load  or  more  to  sell  at  one 
time  can  go  to  a  better  market.  1  believe,  however, 
that  the  majority  of  farmers  will  succeed  better  on  a 
small  farm,  and  that  the  farm  is  always  too  large  for 
the  farmer  if  he  owes  for  a  good  part  of  it  and  can- 
not reduce  his  indebtedness.  The  farmer  will  be 
able  to  do  better  work  who  has  a  cash  working  capi- 
tal and  no  debt  than  the  man  who  owes  for  a  part  of 
his  land.  Remember  that  quite  a  small  farm  will 
furnish  the  family  table,  and  that  this  has  been  shown 
to  be  an  important  factor  in  the  profit  of  farming, 
Then  much  time  is  lost  on  a  large  farm  in  going 
back  and  forth  and  drawing  crops  from  distant  fields, 
while  a  small  farm  brings  the  work  under  the  master's 
eye  and  near  at  hand.  It  is  easier  also  to  prepare  a 
perfect  seed  bed  and  give  that  thorough  cultivation 
which  produces  the  best  results  on  a  few  acres  than 
on  many,  and  the  profit  of  farming  does  not  depend 
so  much  on  acres  as  on  bushels.  In  fact,  if  our  sta- 
tistics are  to  be  relied  on,  about  all  the  profit  in 
farming  comes  from  crops  which  yield  above  the 
average,  for  the  average  yield  of  wheat  hovers 
around  twelve  bushels  to  the  acre;  of  corn  about 
thirty  bushels,  and  of  hay  less  than  a  ton  to  the  acre, 
and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  no  man  would  get  rich  or 


314   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPL 

be  even  likely  to  get  out  of  debt  on  such  yields  as 
these.  The  man  who  has  learned  to  manage  a  farm  of 
from  twenty-five  to  fifty  acres  so  as  to  have  an  assured 
income  sufficient  for  his  wants,  has  less  care  and 
worry  than  the  one  who  farms  200  acres  to  reach  the 
same  result,  and  there  are  thousands  of  farmers,  yes, 
tens  of  thousands,  who  are  doing  this  on  farms  much 
less  than  twenty-five  acres.  The  great  mistake  made 
by  many  young  farmers  is  in  buying  more  land  than 
they  can  pay  for,  leaving  them  no  working  capital 
and  nothing  to  improve  with,  as  all  they  can  make 
after  supporting  the  family  must  be  paid  in  interest 
on  debts,  and  a  man  so  situated  soon  loses  courage 
and  very  rarely  does  his  best.  Few  farmers  have 
ever  tested  the  possibility  of  an  acre  of  good  land, 
but  thousands  have  worked  a  hundred  acres  so  indif- 
ferently as  to  get  a  scanty  support  for  the  family  from 
it.  Old  Mother  Earth  is  so  indulgent  that  the  ig- 
norant and  the  lazy  can  live  on  her  bosom  without 
fear  of  want,  but  she  reveals  her  secrets  and  opens 
her  generous  stores  only  to  the  thoughtful,  earnest 
man  who  thinks  and  plans  as  well  as  works.  Intelli- 
gence counts  for  as  much  on  the  farm  as  in  the  store 
or  shop,  and  the  more  intelligently  we  work  the 
greater  the  pleasure  we  shall  take  in  our  work.  As 
it  takes  greater  intelligence  to  get  an  average  in- 
come of  $100  an  acre  from  a  small  farm  than  ten 
dollars  an  acre  from  a  large  one,  to  my  mind  the 
pleasure  of  managing  the  small  farm  is  greater.  My 
own  greatest  success  and  pleasure  in  farming  has 


THE  HOME  ON  THE  FARM.  315 

been  from  the  thorough  cultivation  of  a  few  acres, 
and  if  I  was  again  on  the  threshold  of  life,  beginning 
at  the  foundation,  I  would  secure  a  small  farm  near  a 
good  market  and  follow  intensive  farming. 

MAINTAINING  FERTILITY. 

Some  one  has  said,  "  He  who  makes  two  blades  of 
grass  grow  where  but  one  grew  before  is  a  public 
benefactor,"  and  it  is  equally  true  that  the  man  who 
wantonly  and  selfishly  reduces  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
is  an  enemy  of  his  race.  There  should  be  but  one 
test  of  good  farming,  and  that  should  be  profit  from 
the  land  without  impoverishing  it.  God  did  not 
make  the  earth  and  place  man  on  it  to  starve  be- 
cause its  fertility  should  be  exhausted  like  a  worked^ 
out.  mine,  but  the  earth  is  a  laboratory  in  which, 
under  the  guidance  of  an  intelligent  mind,  plant  food 
can  be  elaborated  to  meet  the  wants  of  successive 
generations.  It  is  a  wonderful  provision  that  this 
fertility  is  locked  up  in  the  soil,  so  that  the  greed  of 
man  can  not  exhaust  it,  and  that  good  farming 
increases  available  fertility.  No  intelligent  farmer, 
in  purchasing  a  farm,  would  look  for  one  on  which 
light  crops  had  been  grown  for  a  series  of  years,  but 
he  would  choose  the  one  on  which  heavy  crops  had 
been  grown,  though  the  lands  lay  side  by  side  and 
were  of  exactly  the  same  formation.  Again,  how 
wonderful  that  the  earth  can  take  the  offensive  and 
poisonous  excretions  of  animals  and,  by  the  alchemy 
of  her  wonderful  laboratory,  transmute  them  into 


316   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

golden  grain,  luscious  fruits,  and  delicious  vegetables. 
The  maintaining  of  the  fertility  of  our  farms  is  our 
greatest  privilege  and  highest  duty.  Three  methods 
are  at  our  command.  First,  the  saving  and  applica- 
tion of  stable  or  barn-yard  manure.  Second,  the  use 
of  commercial  fertilizers,  and,  third,  green  manuring. 
On  all  farms  the  first  and  third  should  be  constantly 
used,  and  on  many  all  three.  I  propose  to  take  up 
in  the  order  named  these  three  methods  and  try  to 
show  how  best  to  use  them.  To  begin  with,  the 
making  and  saving  of  stable  manure.  One  would 
think  that  a  farmer  who  had  dug  two  hundred  bushels 
of  potatoes  or  harvested  eighty  bushels  of  corn,  or 
thirty  of  wheat  on  a  well-manured  acre  would  ever 
after  be  an  advocate  of  stable  manure  and  would 
plan  to  save  all  that  he  possibly  could.  But,  even 
now,  in  the  last  year  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when,  in  all  of  our  older  States,  our  lands  have  been 
cultivated  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  years,  and  the 
virgin  fertility  is  exhausted,  about  one  farmer  in  ten 
manages  his  manure  intelligently  and  fully  half  the 
farmers  lose  more  than  three-fourths  of  it.  I  have 
just  returned  from  six  weeks'  lecture  work  at  the 
Farmers'  Institute,  during  which  time  I  have  traveled 
two  thousand  miles  zigzagging  over  the  State  of 
Ohio,  often  entertained  at  the  homes  of  farmers,  and 
always  watching  the  farms  that  I  passed,  to  try  and 
see  whether  or  not  they  showed  evidence  of  fertility 
and  how  the  farmers  were  managing  the  manure,  and 
in  a  majority  of  cases  it  seemed  to  be  about  as  bad 


THE    HOME    ON    THE    FARM.  317 

as  it  would  be  possible  to  make  it.  The  straw  was 
either  left  *m  the  field,  or  a  wood  lot,  or  stacked  on 
some  rocky  hill-side  sloping  to  a  brook  for  the  very 
purpose  of  having  the  land  washed  clean  by  the  rains. 
The  barn-yard  often  contained  an  acre  or  more,  so 
that  the  manure  dropped  was  soon  tramped  into  the 
mud,  and  a  large  per  cent,  of  the*  stock  fed  out 
doors  along  fence  rows  and  in  muddy  lanes.  From 
one  animal  well  bedded  on  a  tight  floor  and  fed 
always  in  a  stable,  more  manure  can  be  saved  than 
from  ten  managed  as  I  have  seen  on  many  farms. 
It  is  of  special  importance  that  we  save  the  urine 
from  our  domestic  animals,  as  it  is  of  much  greater 
value  than  the  solid  excrement.  From  experiments 
carefully  made  at  Cornel-1  University  it  was  found 
that  the  average  weight  of  the  voidings  of  horses, 
liquid  and  solid,  was  over  fifty  pounds  a  day,  or  at 
the  rate  of  over  nine  tons  per  year,  and  I  presume 
that  a  cow  would  void  an  equal  weight.  The  fol- 
lowing tables  show  the  value  of  the  liquid  and  solid 
droppings  of  horses,  cattle  and  swine,  the  estimates 
of  value  being  based  on  the  amount  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  they  contain,  at  the  same 
valuations  which  are  used  in  estimating  the  value  of 
commercial  fertilizers,  namely,  fifteen  cents  per  pound 
for  nitrogen,  eight  cents  a  pound  for  phosphoric  acid 
and  five  cents  per  pound  for  potash. 


318    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

FRESH  SOLID  EXCREMENT.     . 

Horses,  value  per  ton $i  36 

Cattle,        "       "      " 86 

Swine,        "       "      " 179 

FRESH  URINE. 

Horses,  value  per  ton $8  62 

Cattle,         "        "     " 3   H 

Swine,        "        "     "  ..., 3  06 

These  figures  are  taken  from  a  modern  and  relia- 
ble work  on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  and  were  ascer- 
tained by  chemical  analysis.  I  have  been  in  few 
stables  that  had  tight  floors,  and  have  known  farmers 
to  bore  auger  holes  in  the  floor  of  the  stalls  to  let 
the  urine  escape  so  that  they  would  not  be  wet. 
What  should  be  done,  is  to  make  the  floor  water-tight, 
and  then  give  the  stock  a  comfortable  bed  which  will 
absorb  all  the  urine.  Plank  floors  can  be  made 
water-tight  by  laying  them  double,  and  using  gas 
tar,  and  sand  between  the  two  layers  of  boards,  but 
better  and  cheaper  in  the  long  run  will  be  concrete 
floors,  made  exactly  as  the  walks  described  in  the 
beginning  of  this  chapter,  except  that  for  horses,  the 
concrete  should  be  five  inches  thick,  and  the  topping 
or  liquid  stone,  a  full  inch.  For  cattle,  four  inches  of 
concrete  and  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  topping  will 
answer.  There  are  large  areas  in  Ohio  where  the 
farmers  sell  their  straw  to  the  paper  mills  at  about 
$i  a  ton,  in  the  stack.  The  fertilizing  value  of  the 
straw  alone  is  $2.44  per  ton,  but  when  a  ton  of  it 


THE  HOME  ON  THE  FARM.  319 

has  taken  up  one  or  two  tons  of  urine,  which,  with- 
out it,  could  not  be  saved,  it  greatly  enhances  its 
value.  Certainly  no  farmer  can  afford  to  sell  straw 
and  let  the  urine  go  to  waste.  Another  point  to  be 
considered  is,  that  the  manure  from  some  kinds  of 
food  is  much  more  valuable  than  from  others.  The 
animal  adds  nothing  to  the  food  that  passes  through 
it,  nor  does  it  take  much  from  it  of  its  fertilizing 
value,  and  so  the  manure  from  a  cow  fed  on  bran 
would  be  worth  three  or  four  times  as  much  per  ton  as 
from  the  same  animal  fed  on  straw.  One-third  less 
food  will  keep  stock  in  good  condition  when  fed  in  a 
warm  stable,  and  with  good  mangers  and  feed  boxes, 
there  need  be  no  waste  of  food,  and  nearly  all  the  man- 
ure can  be  saved.  The  barn-yard  should  be  small  and 
every  foot  of  it  covered  with  straw  or  some  other 
good  absorbent,  so  that  when  the  stock  is  turned  out 
for  drink  or  exercise  there  need  be  no  loss  of  manure. 
When  used  on  special  crops  manure  is  often  of  great 
value.  I  have  made  $10  or  more  on  each  load  on  a 
sweet  potato  crop,  and  the  land  would  show  the 
effect  of  it  for  many  years  to  come.  Where  I  used 
the  manure  at  the  rate  of  sixteen  loads  to  the  acre, 
I  dug  one  bushel  of  salable  potatoes  to  the  square 
rod,  and  they  came  on  early  and  sold  at  $1.50  a 
bushel,  or  at  the  rate  of  $240  per  acre.  Where  no 
manure  was  used  I  ,got  only  a  peck  to  the  square 
rod  and  sold  them  at  $i  per  bushel,  making  $40  per 
acre.  How  the  manure  should  be  handled  to  get  the 
most  benefit  from  it  depends  on  the  crops  it  is  to  be 


320   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

used  on.  If  it  is  to  be  used  on  a  sod  field  to  be 
plowed  for  corn,  I  prefer  keeping  it  under  cover  and 
drawing  it  out  and  spreading  it  during  the  winter. 
It  is  best,  however,  to  let  it  accumulate  for  a  month 
or  more  in  a  shed  or  stable  where  stock  runs  loose  to 
tramp  it,  as  this  keeps  it  from  fire-fanging,  and  it  is 
always  moist.  I  have  a  stable  at  the  rear  of  my 
horse  stable  into  which  the  stalls  are  cleaned  every 
morning,  and  here  we  keep  young  horses,  mules  or 
cattle  loose  to  tramp  it,  and  we  always  get  rich,  good 
manure  here.  If,  however,  the  manure  is  to  be  used 
in  the  garden,  or  for  onions  or  sweet  potatoes,  we 
find  it  difficult  to  get  it  fine  enough  under  cover  and 
prefer  to  pile  it  in  an  open  yard  and  mix  the  horse 
and  cow  manure  together.  The  rain  helps  to  decom- 
pose and  fine  it,  but  no  water  from  the  barn  roof  or 
from  adjoining  land  should  be  allowed  to  reach  it,  or 
there  is  danger  of  its  leaching.  By  feeding  hogs  on 
the  heap  (which  should  be  flat),  for  a  few  days,  and 
turning  it  once  or  twice,  it  can  be  made  as  fine  as  de- 
sired. One  ought  to  be  able  to  manure  an  acre 
thoroughly  for  each  two  horses  or  cattle  wintered, 
and  with  a  suitable  rotation  followed,  the  land  will 
yield  good  crops  for  several  years  from  one  manuring. 

COMMERCIAL  MANURES. 

The  method  of  maintaining  fertility  by  the  use  of 
commercial  fertilizers  is  comparatively  new,  and  there 
is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  among  farmers  as  to 
the  value  of  this  method.  Many  farmers  are  sure 


THE    HOME    OX    THE    FARM.  32! 

that  such  fertilizers  only  act  as  a  stimulant,  just  like 
whiskey  on  the  human  body,  and  that  their  use  will 
ultimately  ruin  the  land.  It  is  but  fair  to  say  that 
the  men  who  hold  this  opinion  are  usually  those  who 
have  used  but  little  fertilizer,  but  have  jumped  at  a 
conclusion  from  hearsay  or  a  single  experiment.  On 
the  other  side,  there  are  tens  of  thousands  of  farm- 
ers who  know  that  they  are  well  paid  for  the  cost  of 
fertilizer,  first,  in  the  increased  yield  and  improved 
quality  of  the  wheat  to  which  it  is  applied,  and 
second,  from  its  effect  on  the  grass  and  clover, 
which  is  sown  with  the  wheat,  and  as  a  heavy  growth 
of  grass,  and  especially  of  clover,  always  helps 
the  land,  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  good 
effect  of  an  application  of  fertilizer  often  lasts  for 
several  years.  The  trouble  is,  that  many  farmers 
buy  and  use  fertilizers  without  knowing  what  their 
land  needs.  The  wise  plan  is  to  experiment  with 
different  kinds  until  you  find  out  what  particular  ele- 
ment of  plant  food  your  soil  lacks,  and  then  supply 
that.  In  many  cases  money  paid  for  nitrogen  is 
wasted,  while  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  pay  largely. 
Always  seed  to  grass  or  clover  when  using  commer- 
cial fertilizers  on  wheat,  so  as  to  get  the  benefit  to 
both  crops,  and  indirectly  to  others  which  shall  fol- 
low. Do  not  neglect  manure  or  any  other  source  of 
fertility,  because  it  is  cheaper  and  easier  to  put  a  sack 
of  fertilizer  on  an  acre  than  to  draw  ten  or  fifteen 
loads  of  manure,  or  to  fill  the  soil  with  clover  roots, 
21 


322   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

but  be  as  careful  of  all  other  means  of  maintaining 
fertility  as  you  would  be  if  commercial  fertilizers  had 
never  been  invented. 

GREEN  MANURING. 

Perhaps  we  might  use  a  better  term  than  green 
manuring,  for  our  most  intelligent  farmers  do  not 
favor  plowing  under  green  crops  as  a  rule,  but  find 
greater  benefit  from  keeping  the  soil  mulched  as  much 
of  the  time  as  possible,  and  inducing  as  much  growth 
of  roots  in  the  soil  as  they  can.  One  of  the  most 
successful  farmers  and  best  writers  in  Ohio,  Mr.  T.  B. 
Terry,  lays  it  down  as  a  rule  that  "a  covered  soil  is 
always  improving,"  and  that  "mulching  is  nature's 
method  of  restoring  fertility."  As  the  limit  of  space 
for  this  chapter  is  nearly  reached,  I  will  confine  my- 
self mostly  to  one  plant,  which  has  proved  to  be  the 
best  of  all  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  and  restor- 
ing fertility.  I  refer  to  clover  ;  for  in  all  the  ways  in 
which  a  soil  can  be  helped  by  a  crop  grown  on  it,  this 
stands  pre-eminently  the  best.  It  was  for  many  years 
a  mooted  question  with  scientific  investigators 
whether  or  not  plants  of  any  kind  could  appropriate 
nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere,  and  it  is  only  within 
a  few  years  that  this  important  question  was  settled 
in  the  affirmative  so  far  as  clover  and  other  plants 
belonging  to  the  family  known  as  the  tl  Legum- 
niosa  "  are  concerned.  This  is  a  question  of  great 
importance  to  farmers,  because,  first,  nitrogen  is 
the  most  costly  element  of  plant  food,  and  the 


THE  HOME  ON  THE  FARM.  323 

most  easily  lost  from  the  soil ;  and,  second,  about 
seventy-six  per  cent,  of  the  atmosphere  is  nitrogen. 
It  is  wisely  ordered,  too,  that  the  clover  plant  shall 
store  in  its  roots  the  greater  part  of  its  fertilizing 
value,  so  that  while  utilizing  its  foliage  for  stock 
food,  even  growing  a  crop,  first  of  hay  and  then  of 
seed,  from  it,  we  are  still  able  to  greatly  help  the  soil. 
Let  us  first  ask  and  answer  the  question,  "  How  does 
clover  help  the  soil  ?  "  I  answer,  first,  by  plant  food 
added;  second,  by  improving  the  mechanical  condi- 
tion ;  third,  by  inducing  chemical  action  in  the  soil. 
The  plant  food  added  is  drawn  largely  from  the  sub- 
soil and  atmosphere,  sources  unavailable  to  a  great 
extent  to  most  of  our  valuable  plants.  Its  long  and 
large  roots  penetrate  the  subsoil,  and  its  smaller 
feeding  roots  fill  the  surface  soil,  while  its  abundant 
foliage  draws  plant  food  from  the  atmosphere ;  and 
as  has  already  been  said,  this  is  mostly  stored  up  in 
the  roots,  where  we  are  obliged  to  leave  it  for  the 
benefit  of  the  land.  Perhaps  most  farmers  have  not 
weighed  and  compared  the  weight  of  clover  roots 
with  that  of  the  foliage,  but  scientific  men  have,  and 
report  that  more  than  half  the  weight  is  in  the  root, 
and  that  the  roots  are  also  richer  in  plant  food  than 
the  tops.  That  clover  helps  the  mechanical  con- 
dition of  the  soil  to  a  great  extent  is  known  to  every 
farmer  who  has  ever  plowed  a  clover  sod.  Its  small, 
invisible  roots  have  traversed  every  part  of  the  soil, 
and  when  we  put  a  harrow  onto  a  clover  sod,  we  get 
better  pulverization  from  once  passing  over  it  than 


324   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

from  two  or  three  times  on  a  field  which  has  been  in 
corn  or  wheat  the  previous  year.  The  fact  that  the 
field  works  easier  and  is  kept  free  from  weeds  with 
less  trouble,  is  not  the  most  important  one  connected 
with  its  mechanical  condition,  but  the  other  fact  that 
the  roots  of  our  cereal  plants  can  easily  penetrate  it 
and  find  and  appropriate  the  plant  food  that  would 
otherwise  be  locked  up  beyond  their  reach,  is  of  still 
greater  importance. 

CHEMICAL  ACTION 

is  induced  in  the  soil  by  the  dense  shade  of  the  clover 
plant,  and  this  is  one  of  the  most  important  helps  to 
the  soil  and  perhaps  the  one  least  understood.  Many 
years  ago  an  English  farmer  bought  a  poor  farm  and 
in  tearing  down  an  old  barn  one  of  the  large  doors 
was  carried  out  and  laid  down  on  a  field  and  remained 
there  a  year.  The  next  year  this  field  was  plowed 
and  to  the  surprise  of  the  owner  this  spot  produced 
a  rank  growth,  looking  as  if  a  heavy  coat  of  rich 
manure  had  been  applied  to  it  and  this  difference 
was  noticed  for  several  succeeding  years.  The  pub- 
lication of  this  fact  led  a  farmer  in  New  Jersey  to 
begin  a  series  of  experiments  in  shading  land  with 
crops  grown  on  it,  and  these  experiments  led  him  to 
conclude  that  there  was  no  other  way  in  which  we 
could  so  cheaply  and  rapidly  improve  our  soil.  No 
other  plant  enables  us  to  shade  our  land  so  thoroughly 
and  so  cheaply  as  clover,  and  if  our  land  is  impover- 
ished we  certainly  cannot  afford  to  pasture  our  clover 


THE  HOME  ON  THE  FARM.  325 

after  harvest  the  first  summer  after  it  is  sown.  By 
cutting  the  wheat  stubble  quite  high  and  then  a 
month  or  six  weeks  after  harvest  cutting  clover  and 
stubble  together,  taking  off  the  track  clearer  so  as 
to  leave  what  we  cut  evenly  distributed  over  the 
soil,  we  can  get  it  well  mulched,  and  cutting  the 
clover  thickens  it,  and  this  mulch  also  helps  its 
growth,  and  usually  by  the  middle  of  October  we 
can  have  a  perfect  mulch  for  the  winter.  Then  if 
we  do  not  turn  on  the  clover  in  the  spring  until  it 
begins  to  blossom,  it  will  be  mulched  nearly  all  sum- 
mer, or  if  left  for  hay  or  seed,  the  land  will  be  well 
covered  most  of  the  summer. 

Clover  derives  much  of  its  nitrogen  from  the  at- 
mosphere, absorbing  it  through  its  large  leaves;  it 
also  goes  down  into  the  sub-soil,  pumps  it  up  from 
depths  beneath  the  reach  of  other  plants.  The  tap 
roots  of  clover  have  been  found  extending  from  six 
to  ten  feet  into  the  ground  taking  up  their  food, 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  He  who  can 
grow  a  good  crop  of  clover  has  but  little  need  for 
commercial  fertilizers. 

In  the  selection  of  seed  use  that  which  is  best 
adapted  to  your  soil,  taking  care  that  it  contains  no 
seeds  of  foreign  weeds  which  are  so  liable  to  give 
you  trouble.  A  small  pocket  magnifier  will  be  found 
of  great  service  in  testing  the  purity  of  the  seed. 

This  chapter  has  not  been  designed  to  treat  ex- 
haustively the  subjects  on  which  it  has  touched,  but 
rather  to  be  suggestive  and  to  prompt  the  reader  to 


326   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

thought  and  investigation.  It  is  written  from  the 
standpoint  of  experience  and  enthusiastic  love  for  the 
life  and  calling  of  the  farmer,  and  with  the  earnest 
belief  that  the  young  man  who  chooses  the  life  of  a 
farmer  and  studies  it  as  earnestly  as  the  successful 
professional  man  does  his  profession,  will  make  a 
success  of  it  and  never  regret  his  choice. 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  Peoplt. 


MONEY  IN  GARDENING. 


BY  PROF  L.  B.  PIERCE, 

SUMMIT   COUNTY,    OHIO. 


IT  is  customary,  in  making  figures  on  yields  and 
profits  in  farming,  to  deal  in  large  numbers  and 
a  good  many  acres.  This  is  partly  necessary,  as  there 
are  less  fractions  of  days  in  ploughing,  or  harrowing, 
or  seeding  ten  acres  than  in  one  acre.  The  same 
method  can  be  followed  in  gardening  estimates,  and 
is  often,  in  fact,  done  by  novices. 

I  have  heard  farmers  figure  on  a  cabbage  crop 
something  in  this  way  :  "  Five  thousand  cabbages 
can  be  grown  on  an  acre ;  two  ounces  of  seed  will 
produce  the  plants  ;  twenty  ounces,  costing  not  more 
than  $5  and  occupying  a  seed-bed  of  say  four  square 
rods,  will  plant  ten  acres.  The  labor  of  growing  the 
plants  and  planting  the  ground  should  not  cost  more 
than  $3  per  acre.  The  cultivation  may  all  be  done 
with  a  horse.  Allowing  one-fifth  for  failure  to  head, 
and  it  leaves  40,000  heads,  which  would  sell  for  at 
least  three  cents  per  head,  which  would  bring  the 
comfortable  sum  of  $1,200,  more  than  many  farmers 
receive  from  a  whole  farm  of  150  acres."  If  the  man 


328   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

who  does  the  figuring  is  of  a  hopeful  turn  of  mind, 
he  will  not  stop  here,  but  will  instance  cases  where 
cabbages  have  sold  for  $6  and  even  $10  per  hundred, 
and  show  how  it  is  all  clear  profit,  except  $5  for  seed 
and  a  few  days'  labor.  The  salient  points  in  the 
estimate  are  the  five-dollar  start  in  the  spring  and 
the  thousand-dollar  finish  in  the  fall.  All  the  rest  is 
slurred  over  in  an  easy  lumping  of  details. 

The  difficulty  of  getting  50,000  healthy,  vigorous 
plants  from  thirty  ounces  of  seed,  the  perils  of  trans- 
planting, the  heavy  manuring,  the  heavy  handling  in 
the  fall,  the  limited  market,  the  fight  with  flea- 
beetles,  the  green  worm  and  the  green  fly — these 
little  details  are  but  trifles  in  comparison  with  the 
grand  round-up  at  the  close  of  the  season. 

Like  the  traveler  who  goes  to  sleep  in  Chicago 
and  awakes  in  Pittsburg,  the  start  and  finish  are 
realities,  the  rest  is  but  a  dream. 

I  was  once  walking  along  a  railroad  track  in  the 
city  of  Akron  in  October.  At  the  foot  of  an  embank- 
ment was  a  little  board  cabin  or  shanty,  and  beside 
it  was  the  finest  patch  of  cabbages  I  have  ever  seen. 
They  were  so  large  and  beautiful  that  I  stopped  to 
admire  and  count  them.  Apparently  100  plants  had 
been  planted,  and  I  judged  three  or  four  had  been 
cut  for  eating.  There  were  standing,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  missing  ones,  as  close  as  they  could 
stand,  seventy-eight  perfect  heads,  that  would  weigh 
ten  pounds  and  upwards.  The  contrast  between  this 
little  plot  of  cabbages  and  the  jimson  weed  and 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  329 

sweet  clover  four  feet  high,  that  grew  everywhere 
around  on  the  narrow  strip  of  waste  land  where  the 
shanty  stood,  was  an  object  lesson  of  beauty  and 
value.  Doubtless  the  dweller  in  the  cabin  was  a 
laborer  on  the  track,  and  the  cabbage  patch  was  the 
result  of  work  at  morning  and  evening.  In  the  early 
spring  he  had  rescued  the  ground  from  its  captivity 
to  jimson  and  melilot,  laboriously  digging  out  the 
roots  with  pick  and  shovel,  and  bringing  into  subju- 
gation the  soil  for  the  little  garden.  Later  on,  when 
the  rains  of  May  and  the  hot  sun  of  June  had  soft- 
ened and  warmed  the  rich  new  soil,  his  wife  had  pro- 
cured the  plants  and  set  and  watched  them  until  they 
had  taken  root  in  their  new  abiding  place,  and  begun 
that  vigorous  growth  that  ended  so  successfully  in 
the  autumn  months.  It  would  hardly  be  safe  to 
guess  how  many  times  that  cabbage  patch  had  been 
hoed  that  summer,  or  how  many  times  daily  that 
woman  had  been  out  and  peered  into  the  spreading 
leaves,  nor  how  expert  she  had  become  in  detecting 
the  slightly  darker  shade  of  green  that  located  the 
destroying  worm.  It  was  evident  that  this  little  gar- 
den, with  its  single  crop,  had  been  a  labor  of  love 
from  the  beginning,  and  that  much  besides  nitrogen 
and  sunshine  had  been  wrought  into  those  massive 
cabbage  heads.  Did  it  pay  ?  Probably  that  cot- 
tager and  his  wife  had  not  figured  very  largely  on  the 
financial  aspect  of  the  matter,  and  perhaps  if  they 
had  kept  count  of  every  hour's  work  spent  with  their 
cabbage  patch,  it  would  not  have  shown  a  very  large 


330   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

labor  profit.  Even  at  ten  cents  a  head,  the  cabbages 
did  not  equal  a  week's  wages  of  the  man. 

From  another  point  of  view,  however,  there  was  a 
good  deal  in  this  cabbage  patch.  It  would  furnish 
four  large  cabbages  per  week  for  twenty  weeks. 
Fifty  pounds  of  cabbage,  or  seven  pounds  a  day,  was 
no  slight  addition  to  the  family  larder !  What  a 
godsend  eighty  cabbages  would  be  in  the  cellar  of 
many  a  family  this  winter,  whose  children  go  hungry 
to  school,  and  all  of  whose  supplies  come  from  the 
hand  of  charity.  One-fourth  of  the  population  of 
Russia  is  said  to  subsist  upon  black  bread  and  cab- 
bage soup,  and  many  of  the  peasants  are  as  contented 
with  this  fare,  if  they  can  only  get  enough  of  it,  as  a 
cow  in  a  clover  field. 

During  the  last  weeks  of  June,  in  the  county  where 
the  writer  lives  and  the  county  next  south,  there  were 
12,000  men  laid  off  from  work,  and  now  seven  months 
after,  in  the  midst  of  winter,  and  with  families  suffer- 
ing for  the  necessaries  of  life,  more  than  one-third 
this  number  are  still  unemployed.  Suppose  these 
men  had  emulated  the  example  of  the  Irish  cottager, 
and  each  made  a  garden  in  some  neglected  corner  or 
vacant  lot,  how  much  more  comfortable  and  self- 
respecting  would  be  their  condition  to-day.  There 
was  abundance  of  time,  and,  within  the  reach  of  many, 
abundance  of  land,  to  have  made  the  finest  kind  of  a 
garden,  and  a  spade,  rake  and  hoe,  used  industriously 
during  July  and  August,  would  have  made  their 
cellars  groan  with  the  store  of  food  they  contained. 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  331 

The  writer  was  married  in  May,  1873,  and  moved 
with  his  bride  into  a  nearly  completed  house  July  ist. 
and  made  a  garden  the  next  day,  and  it  was  in  many 
respects  a  model  and  successful  garden,  planting 
being  confined  to  such  vegetables  as  had. time  to  ma- 
ture, such  as  lettuce,  pease,  beans,  summer  squashes, 
turnips,  cabbage  and  cauliflower,  and  Swedish  turnips, 
the  plants  for  the  three  latter  being  purchased. 

Within  a  little  ways  from  where  the  writer  sits  is  a 
garden  of  about  an  acre,  belonging  to  an  old  gentle- 
man eighty-four  years  of  age.  It  was  plowed  about 
J  une  6th  and  planted  soon  after.  The  main  crops  were 
beans  of  several  varieties  and  potatoes  ;  besides  these 
were  cucumbers,  cabbages,  tomatoes,  squashes,  early 
and  late,  muskmelons,  Lima  beans,  pole  and  dwarf, 
lettuce,  radishes,  beets,  parsnips  and  salsify.  All  of 
these  were  a  success  and  fully  matured,  except  the 
Lima  beans,  although  the  production  of  melons  and 
tomatoes  was  greatly  curtailed  by  a  frost  on  the  26th 
of  September.  This  was  in  Northern  Ohio,  thirty- 
two  miles  south  of  Lake  Erie. 

About  the  time  this  garden  was  plowed,  I  planted 
on  much  higher  ground,  twenty  rods  away,  sixty- 
eight  hills  Livingston's  Market  muskmelons,  and 
twenty  hills  Stokes'  Early  watermelons,  and  harvested 
1 20  ripe  muskmelons  and  over  fifty  ripe  watermelons,1 
the  latter  beginning  to  ripen  eighty-four  days  from 
planting,  and  all  maturing  in  five  weeks,  or  119  days 
from  planting  the  seed  in  open  ground..  Part  of  the 
muskmelons  escaped  the  September  frosts,  and  we 


332   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

had  ripe  ones  until  about  October  2oth.  Cucumbers 
planted  the  last  of  June  in  vacancies  among  cabbages, 
on  the  same  hill,  produced  a  fine  crop  of  pickles,  the 
elevation  carrying  them  safely  through  frosts  that 
killed  vegetation  on  the  old  gentleman's  garden  on 
the  flat  below. 

Within  the  city  limits  of  Akron,  a  laboring  man 
bought  a  lot  of  one-third  of  an  acre,  and  last  spring 
had  it  ploughed  and  made  a  garden  upon  it.  It  was 
a  piece  of  black  sod,  on  a  creek  bottom  and  five  or  six 
rods  distant,  and  just  high  enough  to  escape  all  ordi- 
nary high  water  in  summer,  although  sometimes  un- 
der water  from  ice-gorges  in  winter. 

It  was  planted  mainly  in  potatoes,  but  had  a  patch 
of  sweet  corn,  cucumbers,  tomatoes,  snap  beans, 
summer  squashes,  and  a  few  late  squashes.  The 
harvested  product  was  twenty  bushels  of  potatoes, 
200  ears  of  sweet  corn,  about  a  bushel  of  cucumbers, 
a  few  tomatoes,  eight  winter  squashes,  and  a  fair 
family  supply  of  snap  beans  and  summer  squashes. 
Some  pole  beans  did  not  mature,  and  the  tomatoes 
mostly  rotted  as  did  the  same  fruit  all  over  the  city. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  it  was  unsubdued  land  ; 
that  cultivation  was  all  with  the  hoe,  and  done  not 
when  it  was  just  the  best  time,  but  as  the  man  could 
do  it  nights  and  mornings,  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
is  money  in  gardening,  even  for  a  laboring  man.  The 
owner  will  probably  continue  to  grow  a  mixed  lot  of 
vegetables,  but  this  little  plot  of  ground  offers  ex- 
ceptional advantages  for  such  crops  as  celery  and 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  353 

cauliflower,  which  bring  relatively  high  prices,  and 
require  large  quantities  of  water,  which  in  this  case 
could  be  either  pumped  with  hose  connections  from 
the  creek,  or  carried  in  buckets,  the  distance  being 
small.  On  the  bank  of  a  race  or  open  conduit,  taking 
water  from  this  same  creek,  is  a  bit  of  dry,  gravelly 
soil,  perhaps  one-third  of  an  acre  in  extent,  where  an 
old  man  has  been  quite  successful  in  growing  cab- 
bage and  tomatoes,  in  seasons  of  drouth,  by  watering 
by  hand.  It  was  seven  or  eight  feet  above  the  water, 
and  he  put  a  plank  on  two  stakes  reaching  out  over 
the  water,  and  dipped  water  with  a  pail  at  the  end  of 
a  rope.  I  tried  to  get  the  man  to  change  to  cauli- 
flower, as  that  would,  if  nicely  grown,  as  it  could  be 
with  water  so  handy,  net  him  three  times  what  he 
could  get  from  cabbage  and  tomatoes,  but  he  would 
not  experiment.  This  garden  was  entirely  fertilized 
with  liquid  manure,  made  by  keeping  a  large  cask 
filled  with  manure  and  filling  it  from  the  race.  When 
the  lye  got  too  weak,  the  contents  of  the  barrel  were 
thrown  out,  and  a  new  supply  put  in  ;  but  I  doubt 
whether  as  much  as  two  wagon-loads  of  solid  manure 
was  used  in  a  single  season.  Under  this  system  of 
soup-feeding,  however,  the  ground  got  pretty  well 
exhausted  of  humus,  and  the  liquid  food  had  to  be 
supplied  pretty  often  to  secure  vigorous  growth. 

I  once  knew  a  man  (an  Irishman)  who  spent  nearly 
sixty  years  of  his  life  as  a  laborer,  on  railway  con- 
struction and  street  improvements.  He  got  too  old 
to  do  such  work  in  competition  with  the  young  and 


334   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

vigorous  Italians,  and  so  became  crowded  out.  He 
owned  two  acres  of  land  inside  the  limits  of  a  grow- 
ing city,  and  he  turned  his  attention  to  gardening. 

About  this  time  he  took  a  contract  for  carrying  the 
mail  out  of  the  city  to  four  country  post-offices,  the 
extent  of  the  drive  being  thirteen  miles  and  return. 
This  trip  with  a  one-horse  wagon  in  cold  weather,  or 
when  the  roads  were  bad,  took  all  day,  but  during  the 
summer  months  he  could  make  it  in  six  hours.  The 
trip  had  to  commence  at  nine  o'clock,  so  he  had  only 
the  ends  of  the  day  for  gardening.  He  got  his 
ground  plowed  in  April,  it  being  a  sandy  valley 
between  two  hills,  but  the  clay  roads  outside  of  the 
city  kept  bad  until  nearly  June,  and  the  old  man, 
when  he  did  his  best,  had  little  of  the  day  left  for 
gardening.  He  managed  to  put  in  a  few  things,  but 
the  weeds  grew  apace,  and  he  got  discouraged.  One 
day  he  went  into  a  saloon  to  brace  up  a  little,  and  got 
to  telling  over  his  troubles. 

It  happened  that  the  saloon  keeper,  unlike  the 
most  of  his  class,  liked  to  work,  and  cultivated  a  fine 
garden  in  the  morning  before  topers  got  around. 
Hearing  his  neighbor's  complaint,  he  advised  him  to 
plow  under  his  weeds  and  unpromising  experimental 
garden  and  start  anew  with  late  cabbages.  The  roads 
would  be  good  from  then  on,  until  the  cabbages  were 
ready  for  market,  and  that  quarter  of  the  city  could 
easily  consume  all  he  could  raise,  and  probably  half 
the  crop  could  be  marketed  right  from  the  garden, 
without  hitching  up  a  horse  to  move  them.  The 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  335 

old  man  had  expended  $10  in  seeds  of  potatoes  and 
vegetables,  and  could  not  be  induced  to  do  as  advised; 
until  finally  the  saloon  man  got  out  of  patience  and 
said  :  "  John,  I  am  not  going  to  let  you  make  a  blank 
fool  of  yourself  if  I  can  help  it ;  now  I'll  tell  you  what 
I  will  do.  You  go  ahead  and  plow  it  up  and  plant  to 
late  cabbage,  and  if  you-do  not  sell  more  than  $100 
worth  after  giving  them  the  best  care  you  can,  I  will 
pay  you  for  the  seed  you  plow  under,  and  what  it 
costs  to  plow  and  replant."  This  was  Saturday,  and 
on  Monday,  after  brooding  over  his  tough-looking 
garden  over  Sunday,  he  took  his  friend's  advice, 
plowed  under  what  had  started,  and  planted  the  nice, 
warm,  mellow  soil  to  Flat  Dutch  cabbage.  One  day 
in  the  fall  John  came  into  the  saloon  and  laid  down 
a  twenty  dollar  gold  piece.  "  What  will  you  have," 
said  the  saloon-keeper.  tl  Nothing  for  that,"  said 
John;  "  that's  for  you,  to  pay  for  the  good  advice  you 
gave  me  about  planting  cabbages  ;  I  have  sold  $170 
worth  from  a  little  over  an  acre,  and  haven't  got 
quite  through  either."  The  saloon  man  did  not  take 
the  money,  but,  instead,  advised  him  to  stir  around 
the  neighborhood  and  engage  enough  manure  to  grow 
another  crop  the  next  year,  and  if  he  did  not  get  time 
to  draw  it,  hire  some  idle  teamster  to  do  it.  This  ad- 
vice was  also  taken,  and  the  old  man  continued  to 
carry  the  mail  and  raise  cabbages  for  eight  years, 
when  he  relinquished  the  mail  carrying,  and  grew 
cabbages  until  he  cut  up  the  ground  into  building 


336   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

lots,  and  sold  each  one-sixth  acre  lot  for  twice  what 
the  whole  two  acres  cost  him  thirty  years  before. 

An  old  gardener  recently  died  whom  I  had  known 
for  many  years,  and  who  made  a  success  of  a  very 
unpromising  piece  of  ground.  It  was  a  side  hill,  and 
very  sandy;  in  fact  his  neighbors,  who  owned  parts  of 
the  same  hill,  stripped  off  the  top,  and  sold  the  sand 
below  to  the  depth  of  more  than  twenty  feet,  for 
making  mortar.  It  was  quite  steep,  and  when  the 
man  begun  he  had  lots  of  trouble  with  midsummer 
rains,  which  completely  wrecked  his  nice  garden  two 
years  in  succession.  He  had  been  a  ditcher  for  a 
good  many  years,  and  thwarted  the  evil  influences  of 
water  in  a  good  many  different  places  and  ways,  and 
was  not  going  to  yield  in  this  case  without  a  struggle. 
I  do  not  know  that  I  can  make  his  plan  plain  to  my 
readers,  but  will  try.  The  hill  had  a  steep  slope  to 
the  south-east. 

He  dug  slight  ditches  along  the  side  hill,  running 
north  and  south,  about  thirty  feet  apart.  These, 
running  partially  corner-ways  of  the  slope,  were  not 
nearly  as  steep.  These  little  excavations  he  sodded, 
so  they  were  no  longer  ditches  but  turf  steps,  with 
just  a  trifle  of  inclination  toward  the  hill.  They  were 
not  more  than  sixteen  inches  wide  — just  wide  enough 
for  a  narrow  footpath.  He  then  planted  his  garden 
in  rows,  running  north-east  and  south-west,  or  exactly 
at  right  angles  with  the  slope.  In  this  way  the  rows 
were  nearly  level,  and  being  intercepted  at  each  end 
by  the  turf-bar,  could  not  mass  enough  water  to  cause 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  337 

a  washout.  If  the  rain  fell  faster  than  each  row  of 
sandy  soil  could  absorb  its  portion,  then  the  surplus 
flowed  along  to  the  turf  and  flowed  slowly  through 
the  grass  to  the  foot  of  the  hill  and  passed  off  in  the 
roadside  gutter.  As  the  land  was  cultivated  by 
hand,  no  horse  work  being  done,  this  scheme  worked 
to  perfection,  and  a  dozen  years  of  profitable  garden- 
ing was  done  on  this  sandy  hillside  that  threatened 
to  conquer  all  known  practices  of  applied  gardening. 
This  man  was  extremely  ignorant  on  many  sub- 
jects (for  example,  he  believed  that  the  little  black 
ant,  the  cabbage  maggot  and  the  cabbage  aphis  were 
different  stages  of  existence  of  the  same  insect),  but 
he  hit  upon  two  crops  for  his  side  hill  which  probably 
made  him  more  money  than  any  thing  else  he  could 
have  grown.  These  were  strawberries  and  Egyptian 
onions.  The  strawberries  were  set  in  July  or  August, 
and  the  onions  a  month  or  six  weeks  later.  The 
former  were  planted  two  feet  apart,  and  the  latter 
midway  between.  This  warm  soil  was  warm  also  by 
location,  being  protected  by  woods  on  the  north,  and 
facing  south-east ;  besides,  being  close  to  the  city, 
gave  extraordinary  results  in  the  way  of  earliness, 
being  from  eight  to  ten  days  earlier  than  my  own 
sandy  soil,  six  miles  out.  He  was  practically  free 
from  late  spring  frosts,  that  often  cut  short  the 
country  strawberry  crop  or  kill  the  first  week's  bloom, 
and  growing  berries  within  two  minutes'  walk  of 
many  customers,  he  was  sure  of  the  best  prices  going, 
and  realized  from  two  to  five  cents  per  quart  more 

22 


338   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

than  country  growers.  Last  summer,  before  I  had 
been  picking  strawberries  a  week,  his  were  done. 
He  sold  sixty-four  quarts  at  twelve  and  a  half  cents, 
and  twenty  quarts  at  ten  cents,  making  $10  worth 
from  less  than  four  rods  of  ground.  From  the  same 
ground,  between  the  rows,  and  a  little  additional 
piece,  in  onions  alone  he  sold  of  bunched  onions  $17 
worth,  or  of  the  two  crops  in  one  spring,  at  the  rate 
of  nearly  $1,000  per  acre,  which  was  probably  twice 
what  the  land  was  worth.  The  rotation  was  two 
years  in  strawberries,  with  onions  between,  and  after 
picking  the  strawberries  the  second  time,  the  whole 
was  put  in  onions  another  year,  when  an  entirely 
different  crop  was  planted,  such  as  potatoes,  tomatoes 
or  cabbages.  He  had  about  one-third  of  an  acre  of 
level  ground,  on  which  he  grew  cabbages  and  toma- 
toes, and  his  entire  garden  was  less  than  two-thirds 
of  an  acre,  with  rarely  more  than  half  an  acre  in  cul- 
tivation, and  his  annual  receipts  were  from  $100  to 
$160.  He  owned  a  house  and  lot  besides,  the  rent 
of  which  boarded  him,  and  the  gardening  gave  him 
exercise  and  a  comfortable  supply  of  pocket  money. 
Fertility  was  kept  up  by  some  kind  of  compost,  some 
liquid  manure,  and  occasionally  some  commercial 
fertilizer.  The  manure  used  to  make  the  liquid  was 
mostly  cow  droppings  from  the  roadside.  The  manure 
in  the  compost  was,  I  suspect,  mostly  night  soil,  but 
the  old  man  would  not  admit  it,  as  there  is  a  strong 
prejudice  in  cities  against  vegetables  grown  on  ground 
fertilized  with  this  substance.  Personally  I  do  not 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  339 

believe  this  prejudice  has  any  foundation  in  fact, 
or  that  vegetables  are  ranker  grown  in  ground  ma- 
nured with  night  soil,  than  if  heavily  manured  with 
any  other  unrotted  rank  manure;  but,  after  all, 
the  old  gardener  was  wise  in  keeping  his  own  coun- 
sel. A  very  successful  and  businesslike  gardener  of 
my  acquaintance  added  to  his  gardening  the  business 
of  cleaning  vaults,  the  work  being  done  at  night,  of 
course.  The  contents  of  the  closed  wagon  was  taken 
to  his  barnyard  a  little  ways  out  of  town,  and  covered 
as  unloaded  with  dry  earth  and  road  scrapings,  and 
then  with  partly  rotted  compost.  So  thoroughly  was 
this  done  that  the  next  day  his  neighbors  would  not 
know  by  the  odor  that  whole  tanks  of  the  foul  stuff 
had  been  unloaded,  and  this  compost  was  often  six 
or  eight  months  old  before  it  was  applied  to  the 
ground,  yet  in  spite  of  this  carefulness,  the  village 
finally  boycotted  his  berries  and  vegetables,  and  he 
found  it  best  to  rent  his  farm  and  engage  in  other 
business  elsewhere.  This  is,  however,  a  digression 
from  what  I  had  in  hand — the  old  gardener's  meth- 
ods. He  was  a  striking  illustration  of  a  nice  adjust- 
ment between  methods  and  results  as  influenced  by 
surroundings. 

The  most  successful  cultivators  of  the  soil  have 
been  those  who  adapt  their  crops  to  the  locality  and 
soil.  The  old  gardener  was  a  ditcher  by  profession 
and  it  was  second  nature  with  him  to  move  dirt  with 
a  spade,  of  which  the  fork  of  the  gardener  is  but  a 
modification.  His  side  hill  with  its  turf  water  bars, 


34O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

and  small  area,  called  for  hand  preparation,  and  here 
his  life-long  habits  exactly  suited  the  demands  of  his 
garden.  Situated  right  in  the  midst  of  customers,  he 
did  not  need  a  horse  for  delivering  goods,  and  so  he 
could  not  take  advantage  of  the  suburban  gardeners' 
mode  of  keeping  up  fertility,  by  cleaning  stable  yards 
and  drawing  manure.  Instead,  he  devised  a  system 
of  his  own,  and  gathered  in  a  wheelbarrow  the  road- 
side droppings  of  cattle,  and  put  them  to  soak  in  a 
huge  cask  that  always  stood  in  his  garden,  and  this, 
with  his  compost  heap  made  of  road-scrapings  and 
various  odds  and  ends  of  vegetable  refuse,  and  a  quiet 
addition  from  earth  closets,  gave  him  about  all  the 
manure  he  needed.  If  we  could  all  fit  our  work  to 
our  surroundings  as  nicely  as  did  this  old  man,  there 
would  be  less  screeching  of  axles  and  breaking  of  cogs 
in  the  world's  machinery  than  there  is  at  present. 
He  died  just  before  Christmas,  at  seventy-three  years 
of  age,  industrious  to  the  last,  for  only  four  days  be- 
fore, I  had  chatted  with  him  as  he  forked  over  a 
strawberry  sod  to  be  planted  with  potatoes  in  the 
spring.  Located  close  to  a  public  road  by  which  half 
a  dozen  townships  gained  access  to  a  very  busy  city, 
his  methods  were  patent  to  a  great  many  people,  and 
not  a  few  had  learned  to  watch  with  interest  his  in- 
dustrious and  painstaking  ways,  and  realize  how  much 
can  be  accomplished  on  a  very  small  piece  of  ground, 
and  this  without  expensive  tools  and  scarcely  any 
conveniences. 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING. 


341 


The  reader  who  has  followed  me  thus  far,  and  read 
between  the  lines  in  these  accounts  of  actual  city 
gardens,  has  probably  began  to  realize  that  money  in 
gardening  depends  on  several  things.  These  require- 
ments may  be  massed  under  the  following  headings 
or  topics.  First,  land  ;  second,  market ;  third,  loca- 
tion ;  fourth,  compatibility  of  crops  with  soil ;  fifth, 
energy  and  industry. 

LAND. 

As  a  rule  loamy  soils  with  only  a  small  per  cent  of 
clay  are  best  adapted  to  gardening.  Such  soils  do 
not  pack  or  run  together  in  winter,  or  bake  into  adobe 
in  summer.  They  may  be  worked  soon  after  a  rain, 
and  weeks  earlier  in  the  spring.  This  latter  is  very 
important  where  the  spring  vegetables  are  grown,  as 
people  are  always  hungry  for  fresh  home-grown  vege^ 
tables  and  will  pay  liberally  for  first  and  early  samples, 
even  if  the  market  is  glutted  with  stale  shipments. 
For  crops  that  can  be  planted  in  June,  clay  soils  can 
be  used,  provided  they  are  rich  and  are  not  ploughed 
when  wet.  Sweet  corn,  Swedish  turnips,  winter 
squashes,  and  late  cabbages  may  be  profitably  culti- 
vated on  clay,  if  sandy  loam  is  not  available. 

For  some  crops  the  muck  swamps  seem  just 
adapted.  This  is  especially  true  of  celery,  onions, 
and  early  potatoes.  The  extent  to  which  muck 
swamps  have  been  utilized  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try is  astonishing.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  county 
in  which  I  live,  is  a  swamp  of  130  acres.  It  was 


342   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

grown  up  to  willows  and  alders,  and  generally  voted 
a  nuisance  and  an  eyesore.  A  wide-awake  man 
bought  it  and  commenced  to  subdue  it,  and  now,  after 
ten  years,  it  is  nearly  all  being  used  in  growing  celery, 
and  is  claimed  to  be  the  largest  celery  plantation  un- 
der one  management  in  the  country.  It  is  let  to  sev- 
eral tenants,  each  of  whom  farms  about  twenty-five 
acres.  The  owner  of  the  land  tries  to  get  industrious 
Germans,  with  large  families  of  children  for  tenants. 
The  children  are  of  great  service  in  transplanting  the 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  plants  used.  Men  newly 
come  over  with  scarcely  any  funds  are  sometimes 
taken,  supplied  with  necessaries  of  subsistence,  seed 
and  tools  by  the  owner  of  the  farm,  he  taking  his  pay 
out  of  the  crop.  The  tenant  does  all  the  work,  and 
receives  half  the  net  proceeds  of  the  crop  when  sold. 
Twenty  miles  west  of  this  in  the  southern  part  of 
Medina  county  is  a  huge  swamp  that  has  been  drained 
by  a  joint-stock  company,  and  the  product  of  this 
swamp  last  fall,  in  onions  alone,  was  reported  to  be 
130,000  bushels,  besides  potatoes  and  celery. 

These  products  are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, and  not  depending  on  a  local  city  market,  location 
is  not  an  important  factor,  save  reasonable  distance 
from  a  railroad  switch.  The  question  of  labor  is,  how- 
ever, an  important  one,  and  in  the  production  of  the 
large  crop  of  onions  referred  to,  it  was  difficult  to  get 
enough  help  at  just  the  right  time. 

Last  summer  when  so  many  shops  shut  down,  the 
company  thought  to  themselves,  "  now  we  can  get 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  343 

all  the  help  we  need,"  and  at  once  advertised  in  the 
daily  papers  of  Akron  and  Canton  for  it.  A  good 
many  went  in  answer  to  the  advertisement,  and  when 
they  found  it  was  weeding  and  cultivating  onions, 
they  returned  to  the  city,  cursing  the  onion  growers 
for  offering  them  such  a  job.  They  preferred  idle- 
ness and  semi-starvation  to  weeding  garden  at  a  dol- 
lar a  day.  Beginners  in  gardening  are  sometimes  in 
such  haste  that  they  overrate  or  underrate  the  capac- 
ity of  the  land. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  plant  subduing  crops,  at 
first,  but  this  will  be  considered  more  at  length  far- 
ther along. 

MARKET. 

Many  of  the  most  profitable  garden  products  are 
perishable,  and  the  necessity  for  a  market  within 
convenient  distance  is  a  very  important  item  in  gar- 
dening. There  are  three  kinds  of  markets  available 
if  the  gardener  lives  within  a  few  miles  of  a  large  vil- 
lage, or  a  city.  The  best  as  a  rule  is  the  consumer's 
family,  the  gardener  delivering  at  stated  time  such 
supplies  as  he  may  raise.  The  gardener  in  this  case 
does  the  middleman's  work,  and  it  takes  considerable 
time,  and  the  salesman,  or  woman,  must  be  a  born 
peddler  to  make  selling  from  the  wagon  a  success. 
The  customers  are  mostly  women,  and  although  less 
difficult  customers  as  a  rule  than  dealers,  they  cannot 
be  imposed  upon  many  times  before  they  refuse  to 
purchase,  and  often  one  disgruntled  customer  will 


344   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

make  it  dull  work  selling  on  a  whole  street  or  block. 
To  make  a  good  retailer  from  the  wagon,  one  should 
have  a  pleasing  address,  be  reasonably  well  dressed, 
and  have  the  contents  of  the  wagon  in  good  shape. 
If  the  peddling  is  done  on  a  high-toned,  aristocratic 
street,  it  will  pay  to  have  the  wagon  covered,  nicely 
painted,  and  have  horse  and  harness  to  correspond. 
One  can  sell  enough  higher  to  more  than  offset  the 
difference  in  outlay.  The  profits  of  peddling  garden 
truck  lies  in  two  directions  :  one  getting  all,  or  a  por- 
tion of  the  middleman's  profits,  the  other  in  working 
off  grades  and  varieties,  that  the  middlemen  do  not 
care  to  handle. 

I  could  give  many  examples  in  my  own  experience 
on  this  point  for  I  have  sold  considerable  stuff  from 
the  wagon  in  the  last  thirty  years,  and  this  experience 
goes  to  show  that  an  article  need  not  be  either  rotten 
or  worthless,  to  have  it  refused  by  grocers  and  deal- 
ers, or  priced  so  low  that  it  amounts  to  refusal.  This 
state  of  affairs  is  frequent  in  the  smaller  cities  which 
are  large  enough  to  receive  fruits  and  vegetables  on 
consignment  from  other  markets.  The  price  of  this 
consigned  stuff  is  fixed  by  the  commission  man  or 
.consignee,  and  if  he  can  do  no  better  he  will  sell  it 
so  low  as  to  just  cover  shipping  and  commission, 
leaving  the  shipper  at  some  distant  point  to  charge 
the  shipment  to  profit  and  loss.  Take  the  case  of 
cabbages.  After  home-grown  Jersey  Wakefield  have 
been  in  market  about  two  weeks,  shipments  of  Early 
Drumheads  begin  to  come  in  freely  from  points  300 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  345 

miles  south.  These  are  quite  loose  and  really  weigh 
but  little  more  than  Wakefield,  one-half  the  size. 
They  are,  however,  showy  and  look  big,  and  what  are 
not  sold  the  first  day  have  the  outer  leaves  stripped, 
and  present  a  brand  new  appearance  the  next  morn- 
ing, and  a  loose  leaf  or  two  can  be  removed  for  sev- 
eral mornings  and  the  cabbage  present  a  respectable 
appearance  still.  Size  attracts  the  eye,  and  as  the 
smaller  Wakefield  will  not  bear  the  peeling  down 
process,  the  grocer  will  buy  the  large  loose  Southern 
product  and  let  the  home-grower  pass  by,  and  he  is 
forced  to  peddle  what  is  really  better  in  every  way, 
or  sell  to  the  dealer  for  a  song.  The  case  is  exactly 
similar  in  regard  to  Southern  sweet  corn.  Large 
coarse  varieties,  only  a  shade  removed  from  gourd- 
seed,  come  in  competition  with  early  sweet  varieties 
home  grown,  and  the  dealer  snaps  at  it  as  he  did  at 
the  cabbage,  for  the  same  reasons,  because  he  can 
buy  it  cheap  and  because  it  makes  a  big  show. 

The  home-grower  is  left  to  peddle  his  Early  Cory 
and  Marblehead,  and  my  experience  is  that  early 
sweet  corn,  in  competition  with  shipped  stuff,  sells  to 
consumers  with  great  rapidity,  and  at  a  profit  often 
of  100  per  cent  over  what  dealers  wish  to  pay,  for  al- 
though they  buy  shipped  corn  low,  they  have  a  way 
of  making  customers  think  it  comes  high. 

Allow  me  to  quote  from  an  article  written  for  and 
recently  published  in  the  American  Agricultiirist, 
upon  this  very  topic.  I  cannot  give  hints  from  ex- 
perience in  more  concise  language. 


346   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

"  A  little  practice  and  experience  in  putting  up  fruits 
and  vegetables  often  helps  sales  and  profits.  For 
example  :  I  know  a  gardener  who  received  a  sudden 
visitation  from  a  horde  of  blister  beetles,  and  before 
he  could  do  any  thing  they  had  eaten  the  tops  off  from 
a  fine  lot  of  early  beets.  The  roots  were  from  one 
inch  to  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter.  He  cut 
the  tops  off  and  packed  the  beets  in  quart  berry 
boxes,  which  sold  quickly  at  a  nickle  a  box.  The 
same  man  sells  Early  Louise,  Yellow  Rareripe,  and 
other  small  peaches  in  berry  boxes  or  baskets.  A 
bushel  will  pack  from  thirty-six  to  forty  baskets,  and 
in  this  way  beets  brought  from  $1.75  to  $2  per 
bushel,  and  peaches  about  $3.  The  peaches  were 
sound  and  fully  ripe,  and  sold  quickly,  because  just 
right  to  cut  up  for  the  table.  Six  prize-taker  onions 
about  two  inches  in  diameter,  placed  in  berry  baskets, 
brought  a  nickle  per  basket,  but  did  not  sell  very 
rapidly.  In  seasons  when  pie  timber  is  scarce,  pie 
plant  thriftily  grown  will  bring  a  nickle  for  five  stems. 

I  will  give  the  exact  contents  of  one  load,  so  the 
reader  may  get  a  fair  idea  of  the  profits  of  peddling 
for  three  or  four  hours.  The  man  had  twenty-two 
dozen  of  early  sweet  corn,  which  he  sold  at  twelve 
cents  per  dozen,  except  one  dozen.  The  wholesale 
price  that  day  was  nine  cents  per  dozen.  He  had 
forty-eight  cabbages,  of  which  he  sold  thirty  at  six 
cents  each,  or- two  for  a  dime.  These  brought  $1.70. 
The  wholesale  price  was  forty  cents  per  dozen.  He 
had  ten  boxes  of  beets  which  had  no  value  to  sell  to 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING. 


347 


green  grocers,  for  they  wanted  a  larger  article  in 
bunches.  The  pie  plant,  of  which  he  sold  three 
bunches,  had  no  market  value.  Beets  and  pie  plant 
brought  sixty-five  cents.  There  were  six  boxes  of 
onions  bringing  thirty  cents,  the  bushel  value  of  which 
was  not  more  than  sixteen  cents.  Finally,  he  had 
twenty-two  quarts  of  fine  blackberries  which  were 
worth,  to  sell  to  dealers,  nine  cents  per  quart.  He 
retailed  twelve  quarts  at  twelve  cents  per  quart,  and 
closed  out  the  other  at  ten  and  eleven  cents  per 
quart.  This  load  sold  at  retail  amounted  to  $7.71. 
At  wholesale  it  would  have  brought  $5.02.  At  half- 
past  eleven  sales  began  to  drag,  every  thing  being 
sold  except  one  dozen  of  sweet  corn  and  eighteen 
cabbages.  These  were  sold  to  a  grocer  on  the  way 
home,  at  six  cents  for  the  corn,  and  two  cents  each 
for  the  cabbages,  making  the  total  of  the  load  amount 
to  $8.13.  The  man  left  home  after  7  A.  M.,  and  came 
home  a  little  before  2  p.  M  ,  the  end  of  his  route  being 
just  eight  miles  from  home.  In  this  case  the  gar- 
dener made  $2.69  by  peddling  the  load,  or  more  than 
first-class  mechanic's  wages  for  the  entire  day.  All 
days  are  not  alike,  however,  and  $i  may  be  con- 
sidered a  fair  equivalent  for  three  or  four  hours' 
work  in  selling  a  five  or  six  dollar  load.  As  a  rule 
one  cannot  do  much  profitable  peddling  on  Monday, 
but  Saturday  makes  up  for  it,  as  one  can  peddle  all 
day,  and  the  first  fruits  of  any  crop  will  be  in  demand, 
and  bring  extra  prices  on  Saturday." 


348   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Although  this  is  written  in  the  third  person  it  is  a 
bit  of  personal  experience.  The  selling  of  vegetables 
must  mostly  be  done  in  the  morning  before  orders 
for  dinner  are  sent  to  the  grocery,  so  the  gardener 
who  finds  market  among  the  housekeepers  of  a  vil- 
lage or  city,  must  live  within  an  hour's  drive,  or  else 
get  up  very  early  in  the  morning. 

Next  to  selling  to  the  consumer,  the  best  market 
is  selling  direct  to  middlemen.  If  one  has  a  large 
quantity  this  is  the  only  way  to  do  unless  consign- 
ment is  made  to  commission  men.  Green  grocers 
have  much  to  contend  with,  and  with  most  careful 
buying  often  have  to  throw  a  good  deal  into  the  gar- 
bage basket.  This  makes  them  cautious,  and  they 
want  from  thirty  to  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  re- 
tail price  for  handling.  If  one  grows  a  nice  line  of 
stuff  and  is  pretty  regular  in  delivering  on  stated 
days,  dealers  can  be  relied  upon  for  buying,  if  the 
market  demands  what  is  offered  for  sale. 

If  the  gardener  is  a  large  grower,  the  small  villages 
are  quite  trying  to  his  patience,  and  lucky  is  he  if  he 
can  give  such  markets  the  go-by  and  take  his  loads 
to  a  thriving  city  where  a  hundred  dealers  can  be 
visited  if  necessary.  The  trouble  in  small  places  is, 
that  one  must  peddle  in  addition  to  selling  to  the 
dealers,  and  this  angers  the  dealers,  who  do  not  like 
to  buy  for  expected  wants  of  customers  and  then 
have  these  wants  supplied  from  the  wagon  of  huck- 
sters. There  is  no  recourse,  however,  except  to  ped- 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  349 

die,  consign  it  to  some  other  market  or  lose  it,  and 
the  first  is  the  most  natural  way  of  getting  out. 

There  are  thousands  of  gardeners  who  sell  all  they 
raise  through  commission  men,  and  in  many  cases 
make  money,  but  I  have  all  my  life  been  close  to  good 
home  markets  and  know  almost  absolutely  nothing 
of  the  ins  and  outs  of  this  way.  I  once  in  a  while, 
however,  feel  the  effects  of  the  system  when  a  heavy 
consignment  is  dumped  onto  the  market  I  sell  in,  and 
I  have  to  buck  against  a  commission  man  who  is 
sure  of  his  margin,  whatever  he  sells  for.  In  many 
cases  the  commission  men  themselves  turn  peddlers, 
and  put  wagons  onto  the  residence  streets,  and  sell 
half  rotten  fruit  and  vegetables  to  consumers  for  what 
it  will  bring,  or  rather  what  the  glib-tongued  huck- 
sters make  the  buyers  think  it  is  worth. 

LOCATION. 

A  young  man  once  wrote  to  an  agricultural  paper, 
stating  that  he  thought  of  engaging  in  gardening, 
and  asked  where  he  had  better  locate,  and  the  editor 
answered  briefly  in  the  query  column,  "as  near  town 
as  possible."  In  making  up  the  paper  the  foreman 
found  the  column  one  line  too  long,  and  left  the 
answer  simply,  "on  land."  For  the  young  man  the 
editor's  answer  was  right,  but  for  the  majority  of 
people  who  are  forced,  or  drift  into  gardening,  the 
foreman's  answer  was  all-sufficient. 

As  a  rule,  the  nearer  town  one  is,  the  better  his 
chance  of  success  in  gardening.  He  can  more  easily 


35O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

watch  the  market,  he  can  get  to  market  and  back 
much  quicker,  and  often  take  advantage  of  a  bare 
market  when  the  man  miles  away  is  not  aware  of 
such  a  condition. 

I  well  remember  a  case  in  point.  Saturday,  in  the 
midst  of  strawberry  harvest,  was  an  all-day  rainy  day, 
so  much  so  that  no  one  could  pick,  and  the  Akron 
market  was  sold  out  before  noon.  A  large  grower, 
two  miles  from  town,  drove  in  toward  night,  and  find- 
ing what  the  condition  of  things  was,  he  engaged  an 
extra  force  of  pickers  and  had  them  to  work  by  day- 
light on  Monday,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  forenoon 
was  distributing  forty  bushels  among  the  groceries, 
at  $3.50  per  bushel,  while  the  price  the  Friday  before 
was  but  $2.  The  sudden  rise  in  price  made  dealers 
slow  about  buying,  but  they  must  have  some  as  their 
customers  had  been  without  over  Sunday,  and  so  the 
berries  were  distributed  in  lots  of  sixteen  to  twenty- 
four  quarts  among  sixty  or  seventy  groceries.  Later 
in  the  day,  when  those  of  us  who  lived  out  eight  or 
ten  miles  got  to  town,  we  found  our  dealers  supplied 
with  all  the  high-priced  berries  they  wanted,  and  we 
were  forced  down  to  nearly  the  old  price,  as  the  mor- 
row was  sure  to  bring  a  large  supply.  The  gardener 
in  or  near  town  can  afford  to  go  with  a  smaller  load 
than  the  one  farther  away,  and  for  this  reason  the 
man  who  peddles  his  goods  entirely  should  be  quite 
close,  as  it  is  possible  to  sell  only  so  much  in  the 
forenoon  hours.  Telephones  are  not  common  in 
country  towns,  but  it  is  often  the  case  where  a  wealthy 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  351 

man  with  a  country  home  has  a  telephone  and  ar- 
rangements can  be  made  to  use  it  occasionally.  A 
gardener  with  such  a  chance  has  many  advantages 
over  one  without  such  communication,  and  each 
morning  and  night  can  inform  himself  as  to  the  wants 
of  his  dealer.  A  wide-awake  gardener  of  my  ac- 
quaintance overcame  the  disadvantage  of  living  a  dis- 
tance from  his  market  by  an  ingenious  arrangement 
of  his  forces  when  he  was  marketing  large  quantities 
of  pease,  bunch  onions  and  strawberries.  He  had 
formerly  lived  in  the  city  limits,  but  the  pressure  of 
city  growth  used  up  his  land,  and  he  moved  seven 
miles  out.  The  conditions  were  quite  different, 
and  competing  gardeners  figured  that  they  would 
be  free  from  his  competition,  but  they  reckoned 
without  their  host.  He  hired  a  salesman  in  Akron 
(the  place  he  had  formerly  lived  in)  and  provided 
himself  with  three  wagons;  sent  them  to  town  as  fast 
as  loads  were  ready,  those  starting  last  in  the  morning 
working  in  the  evening,  taking  in  the  late  picking  for 
the  next  day's  market.  His  town  salesman  was  per- 
fectly competent,  the  horses  could  be  driven  by  boys, 
and  he  was  at  home  to  look  after  his  large  force,  and 
see  that  every  thing  went  to  town  in  fine  order.  By  this 
scheme  he  combined  the  advantages  of  a  town  resi- 
dence with  a  country  garden,  on  low-priced  land. 
The  plan  is  a  good  one,  and  by  this  plan  any  one 
could  carry  on  an  extensive  business,  and  if  telephone 
post  connection  could  be  got  within  a  mile  or  two, 
have  a  telephone  of  his  own.  Many  gardeners,  es- 


352   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

pecially  those,  living  near  very  large  cities,  and 
marketing  on  the  curbstone  or  in  market  stalls,  are 
compelled  to  drive  a  good  share  of  the  night,  and 
various  schemes  are  worked  to  economize  teams  and 
help.  Loads  are  often  combined,  and  three  or  four 
gardeners  will  load  a  two  or  four-horse  wagon  which 
is  sent  to  town  with  a  single  driver,  instead  of  four 
drivers,  as  each  one-horse  load  would  require.  On 
Long  Island,  the  gardeners  load  a  four-horse  wagon 
and  drive  to  the  pavement,  when  the  forward  team  is 
detached  to  return  home  and  plough  and  cultivate. 
The  difference  between  the  sandy  roads  outside,  and 
the  pavement,  in  resistance  to  draught,  is  found  to  be 
equal  to  the  use  of  one  team.  The  forward  team  is 
attached  to  a  two- wheeled  v  .hide  like  the  forward 
wheels  of  a  wagon,  and  the  driver  rides  back  on  this, 
taking  the  bit  of  hawser  which  attached  his  cart  to 
the  load.  Still  another  way  is  coming  into  vogue,  by 
which  the  gardener,  many  miles  away,  does  his  own 
marketing  himself  with  his  own  team.  The  wagon 
loaded  with  its  two  tons  of  vegetables  is  driven  onto 
a  flat  car,  the  horses  detached  and  led  into  a  stock 
car,  while  the  driver  rides  in  the  caboose.  Enough 
such  loads  are  gathered  to  make  a  train  load,  and  the 
whole  is  drawn  to  the  city  as  a  fast  freight,  and  in  an 
hour,  or  two,  or  three,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  gar- 
deners find  themselves  at  the  city,  where  they  hitch 
up  and  proceed  to  market.  These  long  hauls  are  ex- 
ceptional cases,  the  vast  majority  of  the  consumers  of 
garden  products  being  reached  by  a  few  miles  drive 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  353 

in  a  market  wagon.  In  locating  for  a  shipping 
market,  the  gardener  needs  to  be  careful,  and  should 
make  very  minute  inquiries  as  to  shipping  rates, 
probable  prices,  and  relative  earliness.  A  few  years 
ago  the  poor  sandy  soil  of  north-eastern  North  Caro- 
lina was  boomed  as  a  rare  place  for  producing  early 
fruits  for  the  Northern  market.  Some  acquaintances 
of  the  writer  settled  on  the  railroad  north  of  Raleigh, 
near  the  north  line  of  the  State,  and  about  ninety  miles 
from  the  seaboard.  They  expected,  and  were  told 
that  they  could  put  berries  into  Washington  and  Balti- 
more a  week  or  ten  days  earlier  than  growers  at 
Norfolk,  Va.  By  looking  on  the  map  this  appears 
reasonable,  as  it  was  more  than  100  miles  south,  and 
it  was  claimed  that  the  soil  warmed  up  quicker  than 
that  on  the  coast. 

Trial  of  the  situation  proved,  however,  that  there 
was  not  more  than  one  day's  difference  in  favor  of 
North  Carolina,  and  that  this  day  was  nearly  con- 
sumed in  getting  fruit  as  far  north  as  Norfolk,  so  it 
really  came  into  direct  competition  with  the  vast 
mass  of  fruit  shipped  from  around  Norfolk,  besides 
being  twenty-four  hours  older.  Further  than  this  the 
shipping  facilities  were  not  so  good,  and  quite  a  con- 
siderable higher. 

One  grower,  who  went  there  with  high  hopes,  sunk 
$500  in  three  years,  and  could  have  sunk  much  more 
before  he  got  away  if  he  had  had  it.  One  year's 
sales  footed  up  almost  $2,400,  and  the  net  returns, 
after  paying  every  thing,  were  less  than  $280.  The 

23 


354   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

distance  in  an  air  line  from  Norfolk  to  Richmond, 
Va.,  is  about  sixty  miles.  In  the  fore  part  of  De- 
cember, this  winter,  there  were  six  inches  of  snow  at 
Richmond,  when  there  was  none  on  the  gardens 
around  Norfolk.  My  strawberries  ripen  a  full  week 
earlier  on  warm,  sandy  soil,  than  those  of  friends  a 
few  miles  north,  or  east,  on  the  clay  dairy  farms,  and 
the  clays  are  so  much  more  subject  to  late  spring 
frosts,  that  berry-growers  find  such  localities  unprofit 
able,  even  if  their  land  is  a  light  loam.  The  noted 
T.  B.  Terry,  although  having  the  finest  kind  of  gar- 
dening land,  was  forced  to  quit  commercial  berry- 
growing,  because,  being  surrounded  by  cold  clay 
lands  for  miles,  he  was  subjected  to  late  frosts. 
Land  sheltered  from  cold  northern  and  western 
winds  are  earlier  than  exposed  fields,  or  northern 
slopes,  and  a  location  immediately  south-east  of  a 
smoky  manufacturing  town  is  warmer  on  similar  soil 
than  one  to  the  north-east  of  the  same  place.  As  I 
grow  both  fruit  and  vegetables,  my  ideal  location 
would  be  a  piece  of  ground  running  north  from,  or 
out  of  a  valley,  with  a  tract  of  level  land  for  a  garden, 
and  a  hill  immediately  north  for  fruit,  the  hill  to  rise 
abruptly  70  or  100  feet. 

However,  as  I  before  remarked,  only  a  few  seek 
new  localities  for  commencing,  as  gardening  is  an 
outgrowth,  to  a  considerable  extent,  of  the  demands 
of  growing  towns,  and  the  occupation  is  forced  onto 
the  surrounding  population — -farmers  and  suburban 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  355 

residents  changing  from  their  former  calling  to  that 
of  vegetable  and  small-fruit-growing. 

As  I  have  shown,  such  near  by  land-owners  have 
great  advantages  in  location,  and  this  can  be  greatly 
increased  by  careful  consideration  of  what  their  soil 
and  exposure  is  best  adapted  to  producing.  This 
brings  us  to  the  fourth  topic  which  I  proposed  to 
discuss. 

COMPATIBILITY  OF  CROPS  WITH  SOIL. 

No  gardener  of  experience  would  try  to  grow  celery 
in  gravel,  or  watermelons  or  sweet  potatoes  in  a  stiff 
clay,  for  the  celery  would  rust,  and  the  melons  and  sweet 
potatoes  not  have  sufficient  heat.  These  are  extreme 
cases,  but  there  is  a  close  sympathy  between  all  crops 
and  the  soil,  and  the  more  one  studies  plant  peculiar- 
ities and  wants,  and  caters  to  special  peculiarities, 
the  more  likelihood  there  is  of  success. 

At  a  Farmers'  Institute  a  lecturer  was  talking 
about  underdraining  and  mentioned  incidentally 
that  the  soil  in  Iowa  was  from  two  to  three  feet  deep, 
and  that  it  was  necessary  to  go  into  the  hardpan 
below  to  get  a  suitable  place  to  lay  the  tile.  "  By 
the  Royal  George,"  said  an  English  gardener  in  the 
audience,  "what  a  place  that  would  be  to  grow 
parsnips  !  " 

I  had  an  illustration  the  other  day  of  what  this 
vegetable  will  do  under  different  conditions  of  soil 
and  season  of  planting.  I  was  never  very  fond  of 
this  vegetable  and  had  not  grown  any  for  twenty 


356   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

years  until  last  summer,  when  a  neighbor  handed  my 
wife  some  seed  and  I  sowed  it  in  a  corner  of  the 
potato  field  on  ground  recently  cleared  of  trees  that 
had  never  been  plowed  but  once  before.  The  soil 
was  rich,  but  quite  shallow  from  not  having  been 
deepened  by  cultivation.  The  parsnips  grew  nicely 
and  seemed  thrifty,  but  when  I  dug  some  they  were 
only  five  or  six  inches  long  and  large  in  proportion 
to  the  length.  I  might  add  that  it  was  late  when 
the  seed  was  received  and  that  most  of  it  lay  un- 
sprouted  through  a  two-weeks'  drought  that  occurred 
just  after  sowing.  I  supposed  when  I  dug  the  roots 
that  they  were  a  dwarf  variety,  and  rather  liked  the 
change  of  form.  I  have  since  learned,  however,  that 
the  neighbor,  from  the  same  seed,  grew  parsnips 
twenty-seven  inches  long,  and  as  large  as  a  coffee 
cup. 

His  roots  were  grown  in  filled-in  soil  on  a  terrace, 
and  doubtless  went  to  the  bottom,  revelling  in  the 
wonderful  opportunity  offered  for  stretching  them- 
selves. This  shows  the  possibilities  of  this  vegetable 
under  favorable  conditions  of  soil,  season  and  culture, 
and  makes  one  wish  for  some  Iowa  soil,  and  a  chance 
to  experiment  with  a  vegetable  that  monopolizes  the 
earth  to  a  depth  of  three-quarters  of  a  yard.  Par- 
snips generally  bring  more  than  potatoes,  and  it 
seems  that  the  growing  of  this  root  in  the  deep  soil 
of  the  west,  and  shipping  it  to  Chicago,  might  pay  as 
a  change  from  corn,  for  any  one  with  an  inclination 
for  gardening. 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  357 

Such  parsnips  might  be  a  bother  to  the  retailer 
who  was  called  upon  to  put  up  half  a  peck,  but  a  new 
standard  of  measurement  might  be  adopted.  They 
could  be  bought  at  wholesale  by  the  cord,  and  re- 
tailed by  the  cubic  yard  or  foot. 

Special  preparation  is  often  necessary  even  when 
the  soil  is  congenial,  and  when  this  preparation  is 
accomplished,  some  vegetables  thrive  better  on  the 
same  field  for  a  number  of  years  than  if  a  rotation  is 
tried.  This  is  true  especially  of  onions,  and  they 
are  a  crop  that  one  cannot  profitably  go  into  for  a 
single  season. 

A  friend  came  into  possession  of  a  farm  on  which 
there  was  a  level  meadow  of  black  soil  covered  with 
a  heavy  sod.  It  had  been  swampy  before  clearing, 
and  was  really  a  very  fine  piece  of  land  for  gardening. 
The  year  after  coming  in  possession  he  plowed  this 
piece  of  ground  and  raised  a  crop  of  corn.  It  was 
very  hard  to  work,  and  when  plowed  the  next  spring 
the  surface  was  nearly  covered  with  fragments  of 
partially  rotted' turf  from  the  size  of  a  saucer  to  that 
of  a  small  sheepskin.  Onions  had  paid  an  acquaint- 
ance of  this  man  remarkably  well  the  year  before,  and 
in  spite  of  the  advice  of  gardeners,  he  sowed  an  acre 
of  this  half-wild  ground  to  onions,  buying  high-priced 
seed,  and  a  $7  drill  to  sow  it  with.  Only  a  part  of 
the  seed  came  up,  and  some  of  this  came  up  in  a 
double  sense,  coming  up  the  second  time  when  culti- 
vation and  weeding  moved  the  bits  of  turf  in  which 
the  young  onions  were  growing.  As  the  man  ought 


258   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

to  have  foreseen,  the  result  was  very  unsatisfactory, 
and  the  crop  was  mostly  abandoned  to  the  weeds. 
If  this  man  had  grown  two  more  hoed  crops  on  this 
field  he  would  have  had  a  rare  onion  bed  that  would 
have  given  him  a  half-dozen  crops,  with  very  little 
manuring  and  probably  large  and  profitable  results. 
As  it  was,  one  season  disgusted  him,  and  he  sold  his 
drill  at  a  sacrifice,  and  contented  himself  with  straight 
farming  from  that  time  on.  I  could  fill  pages  with 
similar  examples  of  instances  where  farmers  have  at- 
tempted to  jump  from  something  they  knew  how  to 
do  to  something  they  did  not. 

With  soil  just  adapted  to  gardening,  with  a  near-by 
market,  and  manure  enough  for  all  the  gardening 
they  had  time  for,  they  have  miserably  failed,  and 
abandoned  for  always,  what  might  have  been  a  very 
profitable  addition  to  their  other  crops,  simply  be- 
cause they  were  unwilling  to  take  time  to  learn  what 
could  be  learned  about  the  proposed  experiment. 

There  seems  to  be  a  lack  of  fine  discrimination  in 
many  minds  between  the  wants  of  vegetables  and 
those  of  grains.  They  fail  to  analyze  the  differences 
in  cultivation,  in  growth,  in  habit.  This  is  especially 
true  of  many  farmers  who  essay  market  gardening. 
Said  one  to  me  a  few  years  since :  "  I  believe  I  shall 
try  growing  three  or  four  acres  of  onions  next  spring. 
I  was  reading  the  other  day  about  a  man  who  got 
$700  from  an  acre.  Why,  if  I  could  make  half  that 
from  an  acre  I  could  afford  to  let  all  the  rest  of  my 
land  lie  still  for  a  year,  and  turn  my  whole  attention 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  359 

to  the  four  acres  of  onions."  "  Most  likely,"  said  I, 
"  and  it  is  quite  probable  you  will  have  to  turn  the 
attention  of  your  neighbors'  children,  and  some  from 
the  village  besides,  to  your  four  acres  of  onions."  "  I 
suppose,"  said  he,  "  I  shall  have  to  hire  some  extra 
help  in  weeding,  but  this  does  not  worry  me  so  much 
as  where  I  shall  store  the  onions  after  I  get  them 
raised.  It  will  take  quite  a  building  to  hold  2,500 
bushels  of  onions." 

"Yes,  very,"  said  I,  somewhat  irrelevantly,  "but 
don't  you  suppose  you  will  have  time  to  put  up  a  build- 
ing in  August  for  storing  them  ?  Your  crop  will  be  far 
enough  along  so  it  will  not  require  much  attention, 
and  if  you  get  $  i ,  200  or  $  i ,400  worth  of  bulbs  you  may 
well  afford  to  put  up  a  cheap  building  to  store  this  and 
many  future  crops."  He  thought  that  reasonable,  and 
then  asked  where  I  thought  he  had  better  plant  the 
onions.  "In  your  mind,"  said  I.  "What  do  you 
mean  ?  "  said  he.  "  Just  what  I  say,"  said  I.  "  Don't 
you  think  I  will  succeed?"  said  he.  "Yes,"  said  I, 
"  if  you  have  some  fine  manure,  and  some  nice  rich 
soil  that  has  been  in  hoed  crops  two  or  three  years, 
and  have  the  money  to  buy  sixteen  pounds  of  seed, 
and  a  seed  drill,  and  can  get  twenty  girls  and  boys 
just  at  the  right  time,  and  the  maggot  and  blight  don't 
spoil  your  crop,  and  the  season  is  favorable,  you  will 
undoubtedly  succeed;  but  if  I  was  you  I  would  put  in 
just  one-sixth  of  an  acre,  in  the  garden,  and  plant  the 
vegetables  this  will  displace,  over  in  the  potato  patch 
this  year.  I  would  give  them  just  the  best  possible 


360   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

care,  and  see  what  there  is  in  it  on  your  land,  and 
with  your  experience.  At  the  same  time,  I  would 
plant  the  three  and  five-sixths  acres  in  my  mind,  and 
give  them  good  care  also.  Every  hour's  attention  I 
gave  the  crop  in  the  garden  I  would  multiply  by 
twenty-three,  and  charge  it  to  the  account  of  a  large 
crop  growing  in  my  mind.  If  it  takes  two  active 
kids  to  keep  your  garden  patch  clean,  then  it  would 
take  forty-six  to  take  care  of  the  mental  patch,  and 
so  all  through  the  season,  and  you  will  know  just 
what  it  costs  to  grow  four  acres  of  onions,  and 
whether  you  would  be  equal  to  the  task  a  couple  of 
years  hence,  when  you  have  four  acres  of  ground  in 
a  condition  of  tilth  and  richness,  suitable  to  one  of 
the  most  erratic  crops  the  gardener  grows."  He  went 
away  looking  as  if  I  was  making  fun  of  him,  and 
acted  as  if  I  had  hurt  his  feelings,  but  he  never  tried 
the  experiment.  I  think  he  planted  so  many  onions 
in  his  mind  that  he  got  a  surfeit  of  onion  culture,  and 
kept  on  with  straight  farming  as  a  kind  of  mental 
relief. 

As  a  rule,  all  successful  gardeners  have  commenced 
in  a  small  way  and  gradually  increased  their  acreage 
as  they  gained  in  knowledge  and  skill.  This  is  not 
so  necessary  in  the  case  of  those  who  are  brought  up 
in  the  business  or  have  worked  with  market  garden- 
ers as  in  the  case  of  those  who  have  been  farmers  or 
mechanics. 

The  late  decline  in  manufacturing,  and  the  proba- 
bility that  things  may  not  rapidly  return  to  their 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  361 

former  status,  will  undoubtedly  result  in  a  considera- 
ble crop  of  amateur  gardeners,  and  their- success  will, 
without  doubt,  almost  entirely  depend  upon  how 
much  they  are  able  to  build  upon  previous  experi- 
ence or  upon  close  observation  of  the  practices  of 
successful  gardeners.  I  know  a  man,  a  machinist  in 
a  reaper  factory,  who  is  expecting  to  exchange  his 
city  property  for  a  small  farm,  with  a  view  to  engag- 
ing in  market  gardening ;  but  I  fear  he  has  some 
tough  lessons  before  him,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he 
has  each  year  the  most  successful  garden  in  his 
neighborhood.  The  trouble  is,  in  this  case,  he  knows 
too  much. 

He  is  wonderfully  successful  in  growing  a  certain 
variety  of  tomato  —  the  Ponderosa.  This  is  not  a 
good  market  tomato.  It  does  not  take  with  the  pub- 
lic, and  has  not  got  the  quality  of  standing  up  well, 
so  it  does  not  suit  the  dealers  ;  yet  he  insists  that  it 
is  the  best  tomato  to  be  had,  and  is  just  as  likely  to 
plant  an  acre  of  this  as  a  first  venture  as  he  is  less. 
He  has  not  yet  learned  that  there  are  amateur  fruits 
and  vegetables  and  market  kinds,  and  that  after  many 
years  of  trying,  gardeners  have  not  been  able  to 
combine  all  the  good  qualities  in  one  variety,  and 
that  there  are  points,  such  as  toughness  and  pro- 
ductiveness, that  take  precedence  of  quality.  There 
are  a  multitude  of  little  points  of  this  character  that 
can  only  be  learned  by  experience  in  actual  practice, 
or  in  the  practice  of  others.  The  man  last  referred 
to  always  has  fine  strawberries,  which  he  follows  with 


362   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

celery,  the  same  summer,  as  a  second  crop.  The 
new  strawberry  bed  follows  string  beans  and  pease, 
being  planted  in  July  each  year. 

Now,  in  this  double  cropping  there  is  real  profit, 
and  the  public,  not  being  very  particular  either  as  to 
what  variety  of  strawberry  it  eats  or  as  to  its  brand 
of  celery,  this  man  will  not  be  apt  to  meet  with  diffi- 
culty in  carrying  his  amateur  practices  out  in  garden- 
ing for  market. 

He  will  still  have  to  learn  what  varieties  prove  the 
best  on  the  soil  of  his  new  farm,  and  he  may  learn, 
perhaps,  that  the  celery-growers  on  muck  swamps  can 
grow  celery  so  much  cheaper  than  he  can  on  ground 
adapted  to  strawberries,  that  he  may  have  to  make 
his  second  crop  after  strawberries  corn  fodder,  turnips 
or  six-week  beans,  as  the  rest  of  us  do. 

In  spite  of  these  decided  differences  between  ama- 
teur and  market  gardening,  it  is  more  than  likely 
that  this  man  will  succeed,  as  he  has  the  true  spirit 
of  the  gardener,  that  of  getting  the  very  most  that 
the  land  will  produce.  To  illustrate  what  I  mean  by 
the  true  spirit  of  gardening,  let  me  relate  an  inci- 
dent. Between  my  home  and  Akron  the  road  passes 
through  a  lovely  little  valley  called  Lover's  Lane. 
Midway  in  this  valley  is  a  watering-trough,  nestled  in 
the  edge  of  the  gravel  bank  and  shaded  by  a  fringe 
of  trees  that  grow  along  the  steep  north-western  bank, 
of  the  ravine.  On  the  other  side  of  the  road  is  a 
dwelling-house,  inhabited  by  tenants  that  change 
quite  frequently.  The  house  and  valley  are  densely 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  363 

shaded,  and  there  is  no  garden  spot  in  connection 
with  the  dwelling. 

Last  spring  a  tenant  moved  in,  and  the  woman  of 
the  family  evidently  missed  the  privileges  of  a  gar- 
den. Near  the  watering-trough  the  gravel  roadside 
had  been  cut  down  four  feet,  and  there  was  five  or 
six  feet  wide  of  the  bank  left  by  this  cut  between  the 
road  and  the  fence.  This  bank  got  a  little  sun  about 
nine  o'clock,  but  the  rest  of  the  day  was  shaded  by 
overhanging  trees.  On  this  unpromising  little  ter- 
race the  woman  made  a  lettuce-bed,  and  in  six  weeks 
the  lettuce  was  nearly  big  enough  to  eat. 

She  watered  it  daily  and  thoroughly  from  the 
close-by  watering-tub,  and  if  the  family  that  moved 
in  afterward  (the  woman  only  staid  six  weeks)  had 
had  her  spirit,  the  lettuce-bed  would  have  been  a 
wonderful  success.  There  was  plenty  of  leaf  mold 
among  the  roots  where  it  was  planted,  and  not  re- 
quiring much  sun,  all  that  was  necessary  was  to  give 
it  plenty  of  water.  Neglected  as  it  was,  some  of  the 
plants  struggled  through  the  summer  and  run  up  to 
seed  in  September.  Let  me  give  another  case  illus- 
trating the  commercial  gardening  spirit.  A  German 
farmer  lived  two  miles  from  a  thriving  village  of 
2,000  inhabitants.  He  had  two  girls  and  a  boy,,  rang- 
ing from  nine  to  fourteen  years  of  age.  They 
planted  each  year  in  the  garden,  about  two  and  a 
half  square  rods  of  onion  sets,  and  later  on  in  the 
season  bunched  the  onions  and  put  them  in  baskets, 
and  carried  them  to  the  village,  and  sold  them  to 

O      I 


364   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

consumers  for  a  nickel  a  bunch  of  five  or  six.  In 
three  years  they  grew  and  peddled  from  this  little 
piece  of  ground  over  $90  worth  of  onions.  On  a 
piece  of  ground  alongside,  they  grew  each  year  onion 
sets,  and  sold  each  spring  at  $4  per  bushel  $10 
worth  beside  those  they  planted  out.  Thus  from  less 
than  six  rods  of  ground,  they  realized  more  than 
average  profits  from  four  acres  of  wheat.  This  story 
is  authentic,  as  I  know  the  children  who  did  this  bit 
of  gardening. 

Take  another  case  of  commercial  gardening  in  a 
small  way.  A  very  active,  stirring  fanner,  at  the  age 
of  sixty,  turned  the  farm  over  to  his  boys  and  moved 
into  a  village  of  600  inhabitants.  His  neighbors  all 
felt  that  this  was  the  next  thing  to  suicide,  as  he  could 
not  keep  up  the  activity  that  had  seemed  a  part  of 
his  being  when  on  the  farm.  But  it  seemed  that  he 
had  no  idea  of  becoming  a  drone.  He  rented  or  took 
upon  shares  widows'  gardens  and  vacant  lots,  and 
begun  to  garden,  making  potatoes  and  sweet  corn  his 
principal  crops.  In  this  way  he  keeps  busy  all  sum- 
mer, has  plenty  of  exercise  for  both  mind  and  body, 
and  I  venture  to  say  turns  more  cash  than  is  realized 
from  any  five  or  six  acres  of  the  farm.  I  once  knew 
a  retired  blacksmith,  who  bought  a  village  home  and 
spent  his  summers  in  the  same  way,  growing  potatoes 
and  corn,  generally  renting  a  rich  field  of  two  or 
three  acres  of  some  farmer  a  mile  or  two  away,  and 
he  sometimes  got  more  bushels  of  corn  from  two 
acres  than  a  farmer  over  the  fence  got  from  five, 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  365 

simply  because  he  gave  it  all  the  care  and  cultivation 
it  needed.  I  have  no  doubt  this  man  lived  a  number 
of  years  longer  than  he  would  have  done  if  he  had 
quit  work  and  spent  his  time  holding  down  a  box  in 
the  village  store. 

The  reader,  who  has  followed  me  thus  far,  will  see 
that  it  is  possible  for  almost  any  one  to  engage  in 
gardening,  and  that  there  is  money  therein  for  any 
one  with  patience,  energy  and  requisite  knowledge. 

As  I  have  shown,  much  of  this  knowledge  must 
come  from  experience,  but  a  vast  deal  of  help  can  be 
got  from  books.  There  are  several  elementary  works 
giving  plain  instructions  for  all  work  and  tools  con- 
nected therewith,  and  it  will  pay  any  tyro  in  garden- 
ing to  get  some  of  these  books,  of  which  Henderson's 
Gardening  for  Profit  is  best  known.  What  can  be 
accomplished  by  going  to  books  for  information  is 
strongly  shown  by  the  case  of  a  man  living  in  Law- 
rence county,  Ohio.  He  was  a  wood-chopper,  and 
such  was  his  strength  and  activity,  that  he  was  able 
to  cut  and  pile  four  cords  of  four-foot  wood  in  a  day, 
a  feat  that  can  only  be  done  by  about  one  chopper  in 
a  thousand.  When  about  thirty  years  of  age,  he  was 
pinned  to  the  earth  by  a  tree  falling  across  him,  and 
he  was  so  badly  crushed  that  his  life  was  despaired 
of  for  a  number  of  weeks,  but  after  months  of  suffer- 
ing he  got  around,  a  mere  wreck  of  the  giant  he  was 
before  he  was  hurt.  His  chopping  days  were  over, 
and  he  cast  about  for  something  he  could  do.  He 
finally  decided  to  go  into  the  fruit  business,  and 


366   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

knowing  nothing  about  it,  he  turned  to  books.  His 
education  was  meagre,  and  he  could  read  with  diffi- 
culty, but  he  went  to  work  bravely  learning  to  read 
as  he  studied  his  fruit-books  and  papers,  and  now, 
after  half  a  dozen  years,  he  has  come  to  be  an  authority 
in  his  line  in  the  community,  and  is  called  upon  to 
read  papers  upon  his  calling  at  the  Farmers'  Insti- 
tutes. I  have  never  met  him,  but  have  been  told  by 
those  competent  to  judge,  that  his  knowledge  and 
practice  are  marvels,  considering  his  ignorance  of 
everything  connected  with  fruit-gardening  when  he 
took  it  up  at  thirty  years  old.  With  such  examples 
as  this  it  seems  almost  criminal  to  plod  along,  as 
some  do,  never  looking  into  books  and  making  light 
of  journals  published  especially  in  the  lines  they  are 
working. 

A  case  came  under  my  observation  only  a  day  or 
two  ago,  where  a  man  has  lost  several  dollars  by  lack- 
ing knowledge  that  he  might  have  got  for  forty  cents. 
A  machinist,  who  owns  a  little  farm,  is  underdraining 
a  field,  and  he  has  had  to  take  up  and  relay  an  outlet 
drain  at  an  expense  of  several  days'  work  simply  be- 
cause he  did  not  know  how  to  do  what  he  undertook. 

A  little  work  written  by  W.  I.  Chamberlain,  and 
published  by  A.  I.  Root  of  Medina,  and  costing  by 
mail  forty  cents,  would  have  told  him  how  to  avoid 
the  error  he  made,  and  probably  saved  him  a  good 
deal  in  doing  the  balance  of  his  draining.  The  lead- 
ing journals  are  also  of  great  assistance  in  learning 
to  garden,  and  the  small  sum  that  it  costs  in  these 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  367 

days  to  get  them  is  surprising.  Six  of  the  very  best 
papers  that  are  published  in  the  United  States  upon 
Agriculture  and  Horticulture  may  be  bought  for  an 
equal  number  of  dollars,  and  if  carefully  read  and  the 
knowledge  applied  with  a  careful  adaptation  of  cir- 
cumstances, will  be  worth  $100  to  any  gardener  who 
raises  a  thousand  dollars  worth  of  truck,  and  in  some 
cases  would  save  that  amount  where  the  products 
were  less  than  one-tenth  of  a  thousand  dollars.  And 
now  perhaps  some  reader  will  wonder  why  I  have  not 
given  some  of  this  information  of  a  special  nature  in 
this  article.  Why,  for  example,  I  have  not  taken  up 
different  vegetables  and  described  at  length  the  pro- 
cess of  planting,  cultivating  and  marketing  them? 
The  reason  is  this  :  there  are,  as  I  have  said,  several 
such  works  to  be  had  at  the  bookstores,  or  of  pub- 
lishers of  that  kind  of  literature,  and  I  should  be  but 
traveling  in  the  beaten  track  to  rehash  these  works. 
It  seems  to  me  better  to  make  suggestions  and  drop 
hints  all  along  the  line  that  would  set  the  reader  to 
thinking  for  himself,  and  lead  him  to  go  to  those 
works  for  himself.  It  is  not  only  impossible  in  the 
length  of  an  article  like  this  to  give  so  much  infor- 
mation, but  unwise  when  the  object  of  the  chapter  as 
expressed  in  the  heading  is  considered.  Money  in 
the  garden  can  only  be  made  by  the  light  of  expe- 
rience, and  to  lead  beginners  in  the  right  path  to  find 
this  experience  is  my  object. 

As  I  have  several  times  hinted,  experience  in  gar- 
dening  is  best  got  in  small  doses.     In  such  cases  fail- 


368   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

ure  does  not  discourage  to  the  extent  of  disgust  or 
success  lead  to  large  expenditures  and  rapid  expan- 
sion beyond  the  ability  of  the  experimenter.  In  the 
beginning  I  gave  an  example  of  the  way  it  was  pos- 
sible to  figure  on  a  ten-acre  patch  of  cabbages. 

It  is  possible  to  do  the  same  with  any  other  crop, 
as  for  example,  by  having  the  rows  six  inches  apart, 
and  growing  ten  to  a  foot  of  row  twenty  radishes  can 
be  grown  on  a  square  foot  of  ground.  A  dozen 
bunches  of  five  each,  bring  at  wholesale  thirty  cents. 
Twenty  is  one-third  of  a  dozen,  and  this  makes  the 
product  of  a  square  foot  ten  cents  ;  of  a  square  rod 
$27.22^  cents;  of  a  square  acre  $4,356.  This  is  a 
snug  sum,  enough  to  buy  a  farm,  and  if  one  could 
have  the  monopoly  of  a  city,  say  of  30,000  inhabitants, 
one  acre  of  radishes,  or  even  two,  would  not  be  a  bad 
investment.  It  is  here  the  trouble  lies.  The  market 
is  limited,  and  the  beginner  coming  in  competition 
with  a  hundred  gardeners  growing  for  the  same  city 
market,  might  find  it  difficult  to  pick  up  a  trade  of 
ten  dozen  bunches  a  day.  There  are,  in  fact,  garden- 
ers who  are  working  this  very  vegetable,  and  their 
wagon  visits  during  the  three  summer  months  prob- 
ably forty  or  fifty  groceries  daily,  and  leaving  perhaps 
loo  dozen  bunches,  or  $30  worth.  I  am  acquainted 
with  a  man — a  man  with  a  liberal  education,  and  an  ex- 
perienced teacher  in  commercial  colleges — who  every 
morning  visits  all  the  offices  and  stores  in  the  busi- 
ness portion  of  Akron  with  a  basket  of  radishes  upon 
his  arm.  He  has  them  tied  in  bundles  of  twelve,  and 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  369 

they  are  not  larger  than  a  small  buck  eye,  not  as  large 
as  an  egg,  but  clean  and  crisp,  and  perfectly  fresh.  I 
have  never  inquired  into  his  sales,  but  a  half  bushel 
market  basket  will  easily  hold  thirty  bunches,  and 
this  would  make  the  basket  full  bring  him  $1.50.  He 
has  been  engaged  in  this  peddling  of  radishes  for 
several  years,  and  I  should  not  be  surprised  if  he  had 
picked  up  a  trade  of  sixty,  perhaps  more,  bunches  per 
day.  I  do  not  know  how  many  months  he  follows  it, 
but  I  saw  him  selling  nice  winter  radishes  just  before 
Christmas.  He  has  poor  health,  needs  light  outdoor 
occupation,  and  this  is  what  he  is  doing.  I  under- 
stand he  has  two  acres  of  black  soil  just  outside  of 
the  city,  and  goes  and  comes  on  the  street  cars.  A 
good  many  look  down  upon  such  a  petty  business, 
but  I  cannot  see  why  it  is  not  as  honorable  as  trimming 
electric  lights,  delivering  groceries,  selling  ribbon,  or 
doing  a  thousand  and  one  things  that  are  done.  This 
instance,  and  that  I  related  of  the  German  children 
who  sold  onions,  goes  to  show  how  one  can  make 
money  in  gardening,  and  not  have  a  very  big  garden 
either.  I  have  in  my  library  probably  fifty,  perhaps 
sixty  agricultural  and  horticultural  reports,  and  nearly 
every  one  has  one,  and  some  two  or  three  papers 
upon  "  The  Farmers'  Garden."  They  are  nearly  all 
built  on  one  plan,  that  is,  an  acre  of  ground  in  form 
a  parallelogram,  filled  chock  full  of  good  things  for 
the  farmer's  table.  Some  of  the  writers  admit  that 
such  a  garden  needs  a  pretty  large  family  to  consume 

the   products,  but  this  need  not  trouble  the  owner, 
24 


37O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

because  he  can  sell  what  is  not  consumed.  This  is 
very  nice  in  theory,  but  the  actual  practice  does  not 
warrant  very  many  experiments  in  this  line.  If  the 
grower  gets  what  he  plants  the  garden  for,  he  uses 
the  best  and  earliest  of  everything  grown,  he  is  eat- 
ing cucumbers  when  they  are  worth  five  cents  apiece 
and  selling  when  they  bring  three  cents  a  dozen  ;  he 
eats  tomatoes  when  they  are  worth  five  cents  a  pound 
and  sells  them  at  twenty  cents  a  bushel,  and  coaxes 
some  one  to  buy  them  at  that ;  he  eats  pease  at  $1.50 
per  bushel  and  sells  the  fag  end  of  the  crop  at  forty 
cents,  or  less  than  it  costs  to  pick  and  take  to  market 
in  the  busy  summer  season,  and  it  is  the  same  with 
the  whole  list  of  vegetables.  It  is  perfectly  right  to 
eat  the  first  and  best  when  that  is  what  they  are 
grown  for;  I  believe  in  it  and  practice  it,  but  I  grow 
enough  so  it  does  not  take  it  all,  and  this  is  what  the 
farmer  should  do.  He  should  only  grow  of  most 
things  enough  for  the  family,  and  if-  he  wants  to 
garden  for  market,  make  up  his  mind  what  he  knows 
most  about ;  what  his  land  is  best  adapted  to,  and 
what  he  can  best  market  without  clashing  with  his 
farm  work,  and  then  raise  enough  to  warrant  going 
to  market  two  or  three  times  a  week.  He  can  in 
this  way  get  and  hold  customers  and  raise  a  better 
grade  of  products  than  if  he  diversified  his  attempts. 
I  was  talking  yesterday  with  a  man  who  was  raised 
upon  the  largest  market  garden  in  Cuyahoga  county, 
Ohio,  where  they  grew  vegetables  for  the  Cleveland 
market.  He  now  owns  a  beautiful  lake  in  sight  of 


MONEY    IN    GARDENING.  371 

my  home  and  runs  a  very  popular  summer  resort. 
He  has  some  fine  gardening  soil  in  addition  to  the 
water  and  this  is  how  he  makes  it  pay.  The  resort 
opens  near  the  close  of  the  strawberry  season  and 
closes  September  i5th.  He  has  two  acres  of  aspara- 
gus, and  a  half  acre  of  strawberries,  and  all  of  the 
former  and  most  of  the  latter  are  marketed  before 
the  busy  scenes  connected  with  the  lake  begin.  In 
addition  to  these  crops  he  grows  summer  vegetables, 
including  sweet  corn  and  potatoes,  planting  enough 
of  various  vegetables  to  furnish  his  own  tables  and 
those  of  campers  and  cottagers.  If  there  is  ground 
left  over,  this  is  devoted  to  late  potatoes  that  can  be 
dug  after  the  rush  is  over.  All  the  planting  is  done 
before  the  season  begins  and  much  of  the  cultivation, 
and  the  market  being  strictly  a  home  market  there  is 
little  clashing  or  interference.  He  has  for  a  gate- 
keeper a  young  neighbor,  a  farmer,  and  this  neighbor 
grows  squashes  and  nutmeg  melons.  These  are 
started  and  got  by  the  danger  point  before  the  lake 
season  begins  and  mostly  marketed  after  the  season 
closes.  He  keeps  a  hired  man,  who  runs  the  rest  of 
the  farm  and  finds  time  to  keep  the  melon  patch 
clean  besides.  My  own  practice  is  along  the  same 
line.  I  commenced  with  growing  fruit,  having  first 
grown  the  trees  and  plants  as  a  nurseryman.  After 
growing  berries  a  year  or  two,  I  found  that  I  could 
grow  certain  kinds  of  vegetables,  and  sell  them  at  the 
same  time  I  sold  the  fruit.  If  for  any  cause  berries 


372   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

failed,  I   had  the  vegetables  to  fall  back  upon,  and 
my  eggs  were  not  all  in  one  basket. 

Several  wide-awake  milkmen  of  my  acquaintance 
are  doing  somewhat  similar.  They  grow  more  or 
less  vegetables,  and  some  berries,  and  find  a  retail 
market  at  the  houses  where  they  sell  their  milk.  A 
bushel  of  berries  does  not  add  materially  to  their  load 
and  adds  three  or  four  dollars  to  the  day's  receipts. 
Twenty  early  cabbages  at  a  nickel  a  head  adds  a 
dollar,  and  so  a  little  every  day  swells  the  summer's 
total  to  a  considerable  sum.  In  this  case  there  is  no 
extra  trips  to  market,  and  the  prices  being  close  to 
retail,  there  is  a  good  profit  beyond  what  the  market 
gardener  gets  who  sells  entirely  at  wholesale,  and 
goes  to  market  entirely  at  the  expense  of  his  truck. 
Finally,  my  reader  friend,  study  the  garden  from  all 
points  of  location,  soil  and  market,  and  grow  to  start 
with  those  products  with  which  you  have  had  the 
most  experience,  touching  lightly  untried  kinds  and 
new  varieties.  Perseverance  along  these  lines  will  in 
the  end  result  in  success. 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  People. 


POTATO  CULTURE. 


BY  T.  B.  TERRY 

SOILS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION. 

The  best  soils  for  potato-raising,  perhaps,  are  those 
varying  between  a  sandy  or  gravelly  loam  and  a  clay 
loam,  although  they  can  be  raised,  of  course,  with 
more  or  less  profit  on  lighter  ones,  on  black  soils,  or 
almost  any  kind  of  land,  even  on  quite  heavy  soil  if 
tile-drained.  But,  do  not  risk  them  on  heavy  land 
that  is  not  underdrained,  as  you  may  lose  more  than 
the  cost  of  draining  in  a  single  year.  It  may  be  wise 
to  think  twice  before  deciding  to  tile-drain  your  land 
in  order  that  you  may  devote  it  to  potato-raising,  to 
think  whether  it  may  not  be  more  profitably  used,  all 
things  considered  ;  but  if  you  have  determined  to  raise 
potatoes  any  way,  then  underdrain  thoroughly  the 
first  thing  you  do.  "  Lock  your  barn-door  before  your 
horse  is  stolen."  Hundreds  and  hundreds  of  acres  of 
potatoes  are  destroyed  every  wet  season  by  stagnant 
water.  Underdraining  would  have  prevented  this 
for  the  most  part.  Thirty  dollars'  worth  of  tiles  and 
labor  to  the  acre  might  have  saved  $50.00  or  even 
$100.00  worth  of  crops.  I  have  known  of  cases  on 


374   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

land  quite  similar  to  my  own,  where  the  farmer  met 
with  failure  for  lack  of  about  $15.00  worth  of  tile- 
draining  per  acre,  while  my  land  the  same  season 
brought  about   $100.00  per  acre.     The  draining  in 
this  case  would  have  paid  for  itself  several  times  over. 
The  most  of  my  land  is  a  loam,  but  some  of  it  is 
almost  too  sandy  or  gravelly,  and  some  too  heavy. 
The  heavy  soil  we  have  tile-drained  ;  but  still  I   find 
that,  in  a  very  wet  season,  potatoes  will  rot  some  in 
spite  of  the  drains.      On  an  average  I  got  the  most 
satisfactory  crops,  all  things  considered,  on  soil  that 
is  not  quite  heavy  enough  to  need  underdraining  to 
any  great  extent.     Such  soils  are  light  enough  to 
work  easily;  the  potatoes  come  out  bright  and  clean, 
and  still  they  are  heavy  enough   to  be  strong  soils, 
and  to  hold  manure  well,  and  clover  does  very  well 
on  them.     The  farmer  who  raises  only  a  few  potatoes 
for  his  own  use  need  not  pay  such  particular  attention 
to  the  soil,  as,  if  half  of  them  are  likely  to  rot  from 
wet  feet,  he  can  plant  a  larger  patch ;  or  if  they  do 
not  come  out  bright  and  clean,  they  are  for  his  own 
use      But  the  man  who  raises  acres  of  potatoes  for 
market  should  grow  them  where  they  will  come  out 
looking  nice,  if  possible,  as  that  helps  to  sell  them, 
and  he  cannot  afford  to  plant  where   there  will  be 
much  danger  from  wet  weather  rot  or  seed  rotting,  or 
where  it  will  take  a  very  large  amount  of  labor  to 
prepare  the  soil  properly. 

To  my  mind,  in  this  age,  it  is  unwise  to  try  to  make 
our  land  do  what  it  is  not  best  fitted  for.     I  could,  I 


POTATO    CULTURE.  375 

think,  take  the  heaviest  clay  on  my  farm  and  make  it 
good  potato  land.  This  is  possible,  but  I  think  it  far 
wiser  to  use  land  for  this  purpose  that  is  naturally 
about  right,  and  use  the  clay  for  what  it  is  best  fitted. 
Great  success  in  potato  culture  will  be  on  soil  reason- 
ably fitted  for  the  business  naturally.  The  business 
is  changing,  and  the  market  is  less  and  less  supplied 
with  a  few  loads  from  every  farm,  and  more  and  more 
from  great  acres  where  the  business  has  been  gone 
into  on  a  large  scale,  under  favorable  conditions.  On 
unfavorable  soils  there  will  be  little  profit  in  trying 
to  compete  with  the  last-named  growers,  except,  in  a 
small  way  for  home  market. 

FALL   PLOWING. 

I  do  not  think  there  is  anything  gained  by  fall 
plowing  sod  land  designed  for  this  crop,  unless  one 
is  troubled  by  grubs  or  wireworms ;  and  there  is  a 
better  way  to  manage  these  —  not  to  have  them  — 
that  I  will  speak  of  in  the  chapter  on  "Rotation." 
If  the  soil  is  very  heavy  and  lumpy,  the  frost  may 
pulverize  it  a  little  more  than  it  otherwise  would  if  it 
is  turned  up  in  the  fall ;  but  such  soils  are  not  profit- 
able ones  to  plant  potatoes  on  any  way,  you  know. 
I  have  found  it  just  about  as  much  work  to  loosen 
up  and  pulverize  the  soil  five  or  six  inches  deep,  in 
the  spring,  where  it  had  been  fall  plowed,  as  it  would 
have  been  to  plow  it  and  pulverize  it  both  in  the 
spring.  This,  for  rather  heavy  soil. 


3/6   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

On  light  soil,  one  might  gain  some  time  in  the 
spring  by  fall  plowing;  but  there  is  another  serious 
question  to  consider,  particularly  for  farmers  with 
light  land.  In  this  latitude,  with  our  open  winters 
and  heavy  rains  of  fall  and  spring,  we  shall  lose  more 
or  less  fertility  by  having  our  land  plowed.  It 
leaches  downward  with  the  water.  In  the  far  north, 
where  the  land  is  locked  up  by  frost  most  of  the 
time,  it  will  not  make  so  much  difference.  Farther 
south  it  will  make  more.  As  a  general  rule,  unless 
you  have  some  good  local  reason  for  doing  other- 
wise, keep  something  growing  on  your  land  just  as 
nearly  all  the  time  as  possible.  This  practically  pre- 
vents loss  of  fertility.  Let  the  sod  stand,  with  its 
live  roots  in  the  soil,  until  the  ground  is  dry  enough 
to  crumble  off  the  mold  board  in  the  spring  ;  then,  if 
you  are  ready  to  plant,  turn  it  over  and  plant  at  once, 
and  get  something  else  growing.  Keep  land  busy  as 
well  as  yourself.  Doesn't  it  need  rest?  Yes;  but  a 
change  of  work  (rotation)  is  a  great  rest  to  it,  and 
all  it  needs.  Give  it  any  more  and  you  lose.  If  you 
have  a  corn-stubble  to  plant  next  year  with  potatoes, 
sow  rye  or  something  to  occupy  the  land  till  you 
plow  for  potatoes.  I  had  a  half-acre  of  stubble  land 
last  fall  that  I  wanted  to  plant  this  year,  and  not 
having  rye,  I  sowed  wheat  thickly.  I  shall  have  a 
nice  growth  to  turn  under  by  the  last  of  April.  Some 
of  that  fertility  I  should  not  have  if  I  had  not  sown 
the  wheat,  and  had  its  live  roots  constantly  on  the 


,  POTATO    CULTURE.  377 

watch  to  catch  up  any  stray  drop  of  fertility.  When 
I  turn  under  the  wheat  it  will  quickly  become  plant- 
food  again  for  the  potatoes  to  use. 

ALL  ABOUT  PLOWING. 

A  deep  soil,  deeply  plowed,  is  undoubtedly  best 
for  potatoes  ;  but  this  deepening  should  be  done  very 
gradually,  say  an  inch  once  in  two  or  three  years, 
until  you  get  your  soil  as  deep  as  you  can  turn  over 
with  a  plow.  Drought  is  one  of  the  greatest  enemies 
of  the  potato  crop;  and  a  deep  soil  will  the  best 
withstand  dry  weather.  Again,  potatoes  are  naturally 
a  deep-feeding  crop.  We  have  land  we  plowed  eight 
inches  deep,  and  some  even  more  than  this.  The 
soil  we  turn  is  now  about  twice  as  deep  as  when  I 
began  farming  here,  twenty-three  years  ago,  and  I 
feel  certain  I  am  working  in  the  right  direction. 

I  want  lap-furrow  plowing,  the  furrows  on  edge, 
and  just  over  a  little,  so  they  will  not  fall  back.  I  do 
not  want  the  surface  of  sod  turned  over  flat  onto  the 
subsoil  by  any  means,  but  scattered  through  the  soil, 
where  the  roots  will  grow.  A  plow  of  this  kind  will 
not  draw  as  easily  as  one  with  a  longer  and  less 
blunt  mold-board  ;  but  it  does  the  right  kind  of  work. 
Of  course,  there  is  a  jointer  on  the  plow,  and  a  wheel 
to  regulate  the  depth.  These  are  as  necessary  to 
me,  almost,  as  the  plow  itself.  Without  the  jointer 
the  grass  on  the  upper  edges  of  my  lap-furrows  would 
make  trouble ;  as  it  is,  there  is  only  mellow  soil 


378   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

there.  The  jointer,  or  little  plow,  attached  in  front 
of  the  large  one,  cuts  a  furrow  about  two  inches 
deep,  and  throws  it  into  the  big  furrow,  where  it  is 
covered  by  the  furrow-slice  from  the  large  plow. 
The  wheel  gives  uniformity  of  work  all  through  the 
field,  and  slightly  decreases  the  draft. 

In  plowing  in  the  spring  for  potatoes,  one  should 
be  very  careful  about  tramping  ground  unnecessarily. 
Winter  frosts  have  made  it  loose — just  right  for  po- 
tatoes. It  is  easily  packed  too  solidly  when  horses 
tramp  on  it,  as  it  is  usually  moist  at  this  season.  I 
got  through  "  plowing  around  "  years  ago.  We 
back-furrow  in  lands;  and,  if  the  lot  is  not  too  wide, 
all  in  one  land,  so  as  to  have  no  dead-furrows.  It 
takes  a  little  more  time,  but  we  do  more  perfect  work. 
Take  one  of  our  strips,  16x60  rods.  Beginning  in 
the  centre,  say  ten  feet  from  one  end,  we  go  down 
and  back,  and  so  on  around,  drawing  the  plow  across 
the  ten  feet  or  so  at  the  ends,  just  plowing  length- 
wise. When  within  ten  feet  of  being  down  on  the 
sides,  we  plow  the  ends  too,  thus  finishing  up  the  lot. 

In  the  fall  we  put  in  wheat  without  plowing. 
When  it  comes  around  again  in  the  rotation,  we  start 
the  plow  ten  feet,  say,  from  one  end,  plow  down  one 
side;  stop  ten  feet  from  the  other  end,  draw  the  plow 
across  the  end;  plow  up  the  other  side;  draw  the 
plow  across  the  other  end,  and  so  on.  When  done 
we  plow  the  ten-foot  head  lands  all  one  way,  one  at  a 
time  drawing  the  plow  back.  Thus  we  get  land  back 
level,  and  the  horses  hardly  tramp  on  it  at  all  after  it- 


POTATO    CULTURE. 


379 


is  turned.  I  wish  I  could  harrow  it  with  a  balloon, 
so  the  horses  need  not  tramp  it. 

Notice  that  my  lap  furrow  plowing,  with  the  edges 
of  the  furrows  up  in  the  air,  and  the  grass  shaved  off 
and  buried  out  of  the  way,  is  in  a  grand  shape  for 
the  smoothing  harrow.  What  would  be  the  sense  of 
turning  over  a  furrow  flat  and  smooth,  and  then  use 
a  cutting  harrow  to  dig  it  up  again,  when  one  can 
leave  it  up  loose  and  save  half  the  harrowing?  These 
matters  may  seem  very  simple  to  experts,  but  many 
are  not  experts,  and  this  is  the  A  B  C  of  potato  cul- 
ture, you  know.  That  jointer  pays  in  two  or  three 
other  ways.  Properly  set  it  puts  all  sods  under,  and 
nothing  will  harrow  up — a  small  matter  some  may 
think;  but  sod  is  plant  food;  potatoes  feed  down  the 
soil,  and  if  sods  are  on  top,  the  roots  cannot  get  them 
that  year.  See?  Again  bits  of  sod  are  in  the  way  of 
using  harrow,  weeder,  etc.  Success  in  the  future, 
sharp  as  competition  is,  must  come  from  careful  at- 
tention to  the  details. 

On  my  soil  I  have  not  found  sub-soil  plowing  to 
pay.  I  have  a  plow  and  have  tried  it  faithfully.  It 
might  do  good  under  some  conditions;  but  I  would 
not  advise  any  one  to  go  into  it  very  largely  until  he 
has  found  by  actual  experience  that  it  paid. 


380    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

HARROWING. 

After  the  ground  is  plowed  in  the  spring,  work  it 
down  moderately  fine  soon  after  it  is  turned  over, 
before  it  has  time  to  dry  out.  It  will  work  easier 
then  than  ever  again,  particularly  if  there  should  be 
drying  winds  and  no  rain.  It  is  not  best  to  work 
down  potato  land,  before  planting,  as  fine  and  as  firm 
as  you  would  for  wheat.  It  is  better  to  do  a  part  of 
the  working  and  pulverizing  after  the  crop  is  planted 
and  before  it  comes  up.  You  kill  two  birds  with  one 
stone,  and  you  do  not  get  the  land  packed  so  solidly. 
Potatoes  do  best  in  a  fine  light,  loose  soil.  It  must 
not  be  packed  as  wheat  likes  to  have  it.  I  now  pre- 
pare land  partly  before  planting  and  partly  after,  and 
keep  all  weeds  down  at  the  same  time.  There  is  less 
tramping  and  packing  of  the  ground,  and  still  as  per- 
fect preparation,  and  weeds  as  well  kept  down. 

A  favorite  way  with  me  to  prepare  a  field  for  po- 
tatoes is  to  attach  three  horses  abreast  to  a  Thomas 
smoothing-harrow,  which  will  be  described  in  another 
chapter ;  put  a  plank  across  the  three  sections,  and 
get  on  and  ride.  This  weight  sinks  the  teeth  in  to 
the  wood-work  usually,  and  does  a  large  amount  of 
pulverizing  at  a  rapid  rate,  in  going  once  over  the 
ground,  and  it  pulverizes  quite  deeply.  The  work  is 
done  soon  after  plowing,  before  the  ground  becomes 
hard  and  dry.  This  is  a  great  point.  After  the 
lumps  once  become  dry  and  hard,  the  smoothing- 
harrow  will  not  have  much  effect  on  them.  The  safest 


POTATO    CULTURE.  381 

plan  is  never  to  let  the  lumps  dry.  If  it  is  very  dry- 
ing weather,  hitch  on  to  the  harrow  after  dinner,  and 
harrow  down  what  you  plowed  in  the  morning,  and 
the  next  morning  work  what  was  plowed  in  the  after- 
noon. "  Why  pulverize  the  surface  soil  ?  The  roots  do 
not  grow  at  the  top."  Well,  there  would  be  danger  of 
the  cut  seed  drying  up  in  a  dry  time,  if  we  did  not, 
and  fine  soil  acts  as  a  mulch  to  prevent  the  lower  soil 
from  drying  out,  and,  of  course,  the  harrow  teeth  go 
down  in  so  as  to  fine  the  soil  below  some  also.  Now, 
after  harrowing  just  this  once,  we  have  often  rolled 
the  ground  and  gone  on  with  the  planting,  and  con- 
sidered we  were  doing  the  best  we  knew  how.  If 
there  are  hard  spots  in  the  field  that  the  smoothing- 
harrow  will  not  work  down  properly,  if  used  on  time, 
or  if  the  entire  field  is  in  such  shape  that  more  work- 
ing seems  to  be  needed,  we  go  over  it  with  a  cuta- 
way, or  disc  harrow,  cross-wise,  lapping  half,  then  use 
the  smoothing-harrow  again  lengthwise,  and  roll. 
The  first  time  over  with  the  smoothing-harrow,  we 
go  the  same  way  we  plowed,  so  as  to  push  the  fur- 
rows over  rather  than  tear  them  up.  A  set  of  three 
horse  whiffle-trees,for  three  horses  abreast,  is  a  good 
thing  as  you  can  go  right  along  then,  with  weight 
enough  on  to  set  the  teeth  well  down.  Let  me  ad- 
vise if  you  use  a  cutaway,  or  disc  in  preparing  potato 
land  you  do  not  go  lengthwise,  as  your  rows  are  to 
run,  but  exactly  at  right  angles,  or  cross-wise,  and 
the  slight  ridges  made  by  harrows  will  then  bother 
the  least.  I  should  explain,  perhaps,  that  my  clover 


382   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

sod,  on  which  no  stock  ever  runs,  is  very  mellow  usu- 
ally. With  less  favorable  conditions,  more  harrow- 
ing (the  use  of  the  cutaway)  might  always  be  needed. 
Again,  some  years  the  ground  seems  much  more  mel- 
low than  others.  You  get  the  point  why  I  do  as  lit- 
tle tillage  as  will  answer,  before  planting.  But  you 
must  not  overdo  it.  Small-cut  pieces  of  seed  would 
dry  up  if  the  surface  were  too  coarse. 

If  there  is  danger  of  rain,  do  not  roll  ground  any 
faster  than  you  can  plant,  as  the  harrowed  surface 
will  dry  off  after  a  rain  quicker  than  a  rolled  one,  and 
the  water  will  not  run  but  soak  down  where  it  falls. 

A  friend  put  in  a  part  of  his  potato  crop  one  year 
thoroughly  well,  and  a  part  of  it  for  lack  of  help,  not 
quite  so  well,  and  he  says  that  he  can  see  now,  after 
digging,  that  if  he  had  paid  $5  or  even  $10  a  day  for 
help  to  put  in  all  his  crop  as  well  as  he  did  a  part  of 
it,  he  would  have  been  the  gainer.  This  statement 
coming  from  a  farmer  who  raised  650  bushels  of  po- 
tatoes from  nine  bushels  of  seed,  is  worth  remember- 
ing. Large  paying  crops  rarely  come  without  a  good 
deal  of  hard  work.  The  extra  labor  required,  if 
properly  managed,  does  not  eat  up  the  extra  crop, 
by  any  means. 

MANURES  AND  THEIR  APPLICATION. 

If  wanting  to  apply  manure  for  the  direct  use  of 
the  potato  crop,  I  would  leave  my  year's  manure 
over  until  fall,  and  then  along  in  September  or  Oc- 
tober, when  most  convenient,  I  would  draw  it  out  and 


POTATO    CULTURE.  383 

spread  evenly  on  the  surface  of  sod  ground  that  was 
to  be  plowed  the  next  spring  for  potatoes.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  manure  does  not  waste  while 
being  kept  over. 

If  it  heats  much  you  lose  ammonia.  If  much  rain 
falls  on  it,  the  soluble  parts  wash  out.  Cement  floors 
in  the  stables,  and  my  barn-yard  covered,  and  manure 
spread  evenly  over  the  yard,  and  tramped,  and  some 
land  plaster  sprinkled  on  the  surface  occasionally, 
will  keep  it  perfectly  for  any  length  of  time.  With- 
out a  roof  over  the  yard  you  may  pile  it  away  from 
the  eaves  and  surface  wash,  mix  the  different  kinds 
together,  encourage  stock  to  tramp  it  by  putting  up 
rubbing  posts  on  the  pile,  thus  preventing  excessive 
heating  and  waste;  cover  lightly  with  earth  in  the 
spring,  and  have  a  pile  in  very  good  shape  for  fall 
use,  without  much  trouble  or  loss  The  manure 
spread  on  the  soil  any  time  in  the  fall  will  suffer  no 
loss.  It.  will  not  be  likely  to  wash  away  any  during 
the  winter,  as  the  soluble  parts  will  have  been  carried 
down  in  the  soil  by  rains,  and  the  grass  or  clover 
roots  will  take  care  of  them.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  to  spread  this  manure  as  finely  as  possible.  If 
spread  by  hand,  one  may  harrow  it  with  a  smoothing- 
harrow,  or  bush  it;  and  I  would  do  this  most 
thoroughly  even,  if  possible,  until  not  a  trace  of  the 
manure  could  be  found.  Perhaps,  you  may  think  I 
put  this  too  strongly,  but  I  mean  it  all.  In  many 
cases  the  farmer  could  realize  double  what  he  does 
from  his  manure  by  making  it  so  fine  that  every  bit 


384   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

of  the  soil  would  have  some,  instead  of  it  being 
turned  under  in  lumps.  I  have  spread  manure  as 
evenly  and  carefully  as  possible  in  the  fall;  and  then 
when  it  was  rather  coarse  to  use  a  smoothing-harrow, 
or  bush  on,  I  went  over  it  three  or  four  times  in  the 
spring  with  the  cutaway  harrow.  This  was  on  clover 
sod.  You  ought  to  have  seen  how  nicely  it  fined 
the  manure,  and  worked  it  into  the  surface  soil. 
Manures  so  spread  in  the  fall  will  be  worked  into  the 
soil  in  the  best  possible  shape  for  potatoes,  if  you  do 
your  part.  I  would  not,  as  a  rule  spread  manure  on 
plowed  ground  or  stubble  land  in  the  fall.  It  is  a 
wasteful  way  as  well  as  fall  plowing.  In  the  spring 
when  you  plow  a  good  sod  manured  as  above,  in  the 
way  described  in  the  first  chapter,  you  will  have  a 
good  foundation  for  a  potato  crop. 

I  cannot  advise  the  application  of  manure  during 
the  winter  and  spring,  for  potatoes.  Fresh  manure 
is  more  liable  to  produce  rot,  in  a  wet  year,  and  scab 
is  likely  to  be  made  worse  by  it,  and  the  quality  of 
potatoes  will  not  be  so  good.  This  is  simply  a  general 
rule.  There  are  exceptions.  I  know  men  who  follow 
this  practice.  It  seems  to  be  all  right  for  them.  But 
I  have  learned  not  to  risk  it,  by  bitter  experience, 
and  so  have  many  others.  I  once  manured  a  field 
with  fresh  manure  through  the  winter  and  spring. 
The  yield  was  large  but  badly  scabby.  The  other 
field,  the  same  year,  without  any  manure  at  all,  but 
clover,  gave  an  entirely  smooth  crop,  as  usual.  You 
may  safely  draw  manure  out  fresh  for  corn.  But  I 


POTATO    CULTURE.  -g^ 

o    «J 

would  not  take  the  risk  for  potatoes.  When  a  dry 
season  follows  the  application  of  fresh  manure  to 
potato  land,  I  have  had  the  yield  actually  reduced  by 
the  manure,  and  then  so  much  was  left  that  the  wheat 
following  was  overfed,  and  got  down  so  badly  that 
we  wished  we  had  never  put  any  on.  I  would  never 
bother  to  put  stable  manure  or  compost  in  the  hill  or 
drill  in  field  culture.  It  takes  a  good  deal  of  time  in 
the  busy  season  of  the  year  and  I  think  it  is  no  better 
than  to  apply  it  broadcast  and  finely  pulverized  in 
the  fall.  If  it  is  finely  pulverized  and  mixed  with  the 
soil,  the  roots  will  find  some  of  it  when  they  start, 
and  they  will  surely  find  it  all  in  time,  as  before  the 
tops  are  full  grown,  if  you  plant  as  near  together  as 
you  should,  little  rootlets  can  be  found  in  every  square 
inch  of  soil,  searching  for  food  and  it  is  better  that 
they  should  find  their  food  widely  and  deeply  scat- 
tered, as  then  in  case  of  drought,  they  are  in  better 
shape  to  get  all  the  moisture  there  is  in  the  soil. 
Manure  in  the  hill  may  give  a  quicker  start ;  but  it  is 
the  steady,  healthy,  vigorous  growth  from  beginning 
to  end  that  fills  the  basket  the  most  times  on  the 
acre. 

It  is  now  no  use  for  the  majority  of  growers  to  try 
to  get  the  earliest  potatoes  into  market  to  get  the 
highest  prices,  as  some  farmer  living  further  south 
will  have  them  before  you  do,  and  ship  them  up  and 
supply  your  market  before  you  possibly  can.  Here 
in  Northern  Ohio,  potatoes  are  sometimes  lower  in 
July  than  in  November.  We  must  strive  to  raise 
25 


386   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  largest  possible  crop  at  the  least  possible  cost. 
Broadcasting  the  manure  will  help  us,  I  think,  to 
do  this. 

MANURING  THE  RENOVATING  CROP. 

I  have  now  given  you  what  I  believe  to  be  the  best 
way  of  applying  manure  directly  to  the  crop,  and  per- 
haps, I  shall  surprise  you  when  I  say  that  I  believe 
that  a  potato-grower  can  do  better  than  this. 

The  idea  of  putting  the  manure  on  to  the  money 
crop,  or  the  one  taking  the  most  hand  labor,  so  as  to 
get  profitable  returns,  has  a  strong  hold  on  the  minds 
of  our  farmers.  It  had  me  once,  but  it  has  lost  its 
hold.  We  follow  the  best  rotation  I  know  of  for  a 
potato  farm  where  no  stock  are  kept  —  a  three-year 
one  of  clover,  potatoes,  and  wheat.  The  clover  is  a 
renovating  crop,  you  know.  It  draws  on  the  air  and 
sub-soil  as  well  as  on  the  soil,  for  nitrogen  ;  and  it 
pumps  up  mineral  matter,  If  we  can  make  it  big  and 
strong  enough,  we  can  get  all  the  fertility  we  need 
for  pretty  good  crops  of  potatoes,  or  wheat.  If,  now, 
we  use  the  manure  to  make  the  clover  grow  big  (put 
it  on  the  young  clover),  will  it  not  then  be  stronger 
and  ranker,  better  able  to  send  its  roots  into  the  sub- 
soil still  more  deeply,  and  to  gather  still  more  nitro- 
gen from  the  air  ?  Again,  clover  is  the  safest  food 
we  can  feed  potatoes.  It  is  least  likely  to  produce 
scab  or  rot,  or  to  do  any  harm  in  a  dry  year.  The 
potatoes  so  fed  will  be  of  the  finest  quality  grown. 
I  mean,  of  course,  those  fed  on  clover  roots  (a  clover 


POTATO    CULTURE.  387 

sod  turned  under)  and  more  or  less  of  the  tops. 
Again,  the  manure  can  be  put  on  at  a  time  of  the 
year  when  we  have  the  least  to  do,  and  when  as  a 
rule  the  ground  is  hardest  and  dryest  and  when  we 
shall  do  the  least  injury.  "  The  man  who  can  get  a 
big  clover  crop  can  do  just  any  thing  he  has  a  mind 
to." 

Manure  is  saved  with  care,  on  cement  floors  and  in 
a  covered  yard.  It  is  put  on  our  young  clover  right 
after  we  get  the  wheat  into  the. barn.  It  is  put  on 
with  as  much  care  to  have  it  fine  as  I  have  advised 
above.  It  is  put  on  the  parts  of  the  field  where  it  is 
most  needed  ;  and  much  care  is  taken  to  do  this,  as 
we  never  have  enough  to  go  all  over.  I  notice,  par- 
ticularly, when  we  cut  the  wheat,  where  the  manure 
is  wanted.  Small  clover  may  not  need  manure.  It 
may  be  small  because  the  wheat  was  very  heavy  and 
kept  it  back,  and  the  land  be  rich  enough.  Where 
the  wheat  was  thin,  and  the  clover  small  too,  a  dou- 
ble dose  is  needed.  You  see  the  point  ?  We  use 
our  manure  with  the  utmost  care  to  help  us  get  a 
heavy  growth  of  clover  all  over  the  field,  on  every 
square  rod,  and  then  we  are  all  right  for  our  future 
money  crops.  Some  reader  may  think  that  manure 
put  on  the  surface  in  midsummer  will  lose  much  of 
its  value  by  evaporation.  This  is  a  common  opinion, 
but  not  founded  on  fact.  I  have  often  seen  farmers 
draw  manure  out  and  put  in  piles,  and  not  spread  it 
until  they  were  ready  to  plow  it  under,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent any  loss.  Did  they  ever  stop  to  think  that,  if 


388   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

this  world  had  been  made  that  way,  fertility  could 
not  have  been  built  upon  the  surface  ?  There  was 
no  one  here  for  ages  to  plow  under  the  manure  of 
animals  or  the  growing  vegetation ;  no,  they  re- 
mained on  the  surface,  and  eventually  the  soil  be- 
came rich.  You  cannot  practically  evaporate  nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid,  or  potash,  and  these  are  the 
three  ingredients  that  we  need  in  manure.  Did  you 
ever  boil  down  any  lye  in  a  kettle  ?  No,  it  remained 
in  the  bottom,  and  water  only  went  up  in  the  air. 
Just  as  if  you  set  a  pan  of  water  and  potash  out  to 
slowly  evaporate;  just  so  if  you  put  in  nitrogen  or 
phosphorus.  These  substances  will  not  evaporate 
in  the  form  given  above. 

Under  no  combination  of  circumstances  can  you 
evaporate  any  mineral  matter.  But  if  you  pile  up 
your  manure  and  let  it  heat,  thus  changing  the  nitro- 
gen into  a  volatile  gas,  ammonia,  and  you  spread 
this  manure  out,  the  ammonia  will  go  to  waste  at 
once.  But  you  will  lose  only  the  trace  that  was 
present  when  you  spread  it.  After  manure  is  thinly 
spread,  practically  no  more  will  be  formed.  The 
slight  amount  you  lose  is  of  little  account.  Doubt- 
less you  would  lose  as  much  every  day  if  you  left  the 
manure  in  a  heating  pile,  where  ammonia  was  con- 
stantly forming.  But  practically  I  keep  my  manure 
from  heating  and  forming  ammonia  by  having  it 
spread  all  over  the  covered  yard,  and  tramped  so  as 
to  pretty  much  exclude  the  air.  The  manure  does 
not  rot.  I  do  not  want  it  to.  I  want  to  use  it  on 


POTATO    CULTURE.  389 

the  surface.  It  has  two  values  I  am  after.  The  first 
value  is  the  actual  plant-food  in  it.  Then,  by  using 
it  on  the  surface,  I  get  a  mulching  value.  Little  by 
little  the  rains  leach  the  plant-food  down.  Mean- 
while the  refuse  portions,  straw,  etc.,  shade  and 
cover  the  surface  between  the  young  clover  plants. 
It  is  a  great  law  of  nature  that  bare  land  grows 
poorer  and  shaded  land  richer.  The  manure  is  so 
finely  spread  that  it  decays  so  not  a  trace  of  it  will 
rake  up  in  the  hay.  I  feared  trouble  in  this  way,  but 
have  had  none.  If  poorly  spread,  it  might  not  only 
decay,  but  would  smother  some  clover. 

How  much  manure  shall  you  put  on?  Well,  ap- 
plied in  the  above  way,  and  for  the  above  rotation,  I 
would,  if  I  could,  use  enough  to  grow  as  heavy  a 
crop  of  clover  as  could  well  grow,  both  the  rowen 
after  the  grain,  and  the  first  and  second  crops  the 
next  season.  The  potatoes  would  stand  higher  feed- 
ing, but  the  wheat  would  get  down,  and  will  some 
anyway. 

COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS. 

I  had  half  a  notion  to  skip  the  fertilizing  question 
entirely.  I  confess  I  do  not  understand  it.  There 
are  good  men,  and  true,  who  report  wonderful  results 
from  the  use  of  fertilizers  on  potatoes,  who  consider 
them  just  as  truly  plant  food  as  stable  manure,  and 
who  say  that  no  other  manure  should  be  used  for 
potatoes,  as  fertilizers  grow  the  smoothest  and  best 
ones.  Several  times  have  I  tried  fertilizers  with 


390   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

great  care,  and  you  may  rest  assured  the  manufactures 
would  not  send  me  a  poor  article.  I  will  tell  you  of 
one  experiment. 

S.  C.  rock  phosphate,  pure  ground  bone,  and  Mapes 
potatoe  manure  (a  so-called  complete  manure  for 
potatoes)  were  used.  Muck  had  been  applied  to  the 
land,  which  contained  much  nitrogen,  and  potash  was 
abundant  naturally,  and  so  in  theory  the  rock  phos- 
phate was  just  what  we  wanted.  The  complete 
manure,  containing  every  ingredient  necessary  for  the 
growth  of  a  crop,  was  certainly  all  right,  but  it  might 
cost  too  much,  as  some  of  the  ingredients  might  not 
be  needed.  Experiments  were  made  in  three  differ- 
ent lots,  on  strips  fifty  to  sixty  rods  long,  using  at  the 
rate  of  600  to  1000  pounds  per  acre.  Great  care  was 
used  in  the  measuring,  weighing,  etc.,  that  the  in- 
gredients might  be  accurate.  I  will  not  take  space  to 
give  full  details,  but  will  simply  say  that,  much  to  my 
surprise,  no  benefit  was  derived  from  any  of  it. 
There  was  a  slight  variation  in  yield,  but  no  greater 
than  could  be  accounted  for  by  the  natural  variations 
of  the  soils.  It  was  a  wet  season.  The  next  year 
was  quite  dry,  and  the  same  ground  was  in  potatoes 
again,  but  no  difference  in  growth  or  yield  could  be 
seen  on  these  plats. 

The  experimental  rows  in  one  case  run  across  a 
piece  of  rather  poor  land,  where  the  yield  was  much 
below  the  average,  Here,  I  thought  I  would  surely 
see  good  results,  but  was  disappointed.  Rotten 
stable  manure  will  increase  the  yield  every  time,  even 


POTATO    CULTURE.  39! 

when  the  land  is  already  rich ;  now,  why  will  not  a 
complete  manure,  containing  all  the  ingredients  of 
stable  manure  do  the  same?  Rotten  manure  would 
have  done  so.  That  same  season,  by  the  use  of 
stable  manure,  freely  applied,  a  half  acre  was  made  to 
yield  more  than  200  bushels. 

In  spite  of  these  experiments,  when  a  circular  came 
one  spring,  with  a  picture  of  a  fine  large  potato  (450 
bushels  to  the  acre)  grown  with  the  potato  manure, 
and  a  little  scabby  one  (120  bushels  per  acre)  grown 
with  animal  manure,  I  could  hardly  resist  the  tempta- 
tion to  order  a  carload  of  the  fertilizer.  There  was 
such  a  difference  in  the  potatoes  (in  the  picture). 
This  is  not  told  to  condemn  the  use  of  all  commercial 
fertilizers,  but  rather  to  induce  farmers  to  experiment 
more,  know  more  what  they  are  about,  and  whether 
a  thing  pays  or  not,  and  not  to  trust  to  theories  and 
fine  circulars,  or  even  the  experience  of  others  en- 
tirely. I  have  no  doubt  that  fertilizers  in  bags  some- 
times pay.  But  do  they  pay  you  ?  That  is  the 
question.  A  thousand  pounds  of  potato  manure,  put 
on  an  acre,  would  cost,  in  Ohio,  perhaps  $25.00.  It 
is  a  big  question,  whether  you  can  not  better  get  the 
same  amount  of  fertility,  and  in  a  shape  that  can  al- 
ways be  depended  upon,  in  $25.00  worth  of  wheat 
bran  and  oil-meal,  to  be  fed  out  with  your  straw  and 
corn-fodder.  Then  you  will  be  your  own  manu- 
facturer, and  you  will  get  the  feed  value  for  your 
labor  in  the  winter  when  there  is  not  much  else  you 
can  do. 


392   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  fertilizers,  please  remem- 
ber me  as  cautioning  you  to  keep  your  head  and 
know  certainly  whether  they  pay  you  before  invest- 
ing in  them  to  any  great  extent.  They  certainly  can- 
not be  depended  upon  like  good  stable  manure.  I 
do  not  stand  alone  in  this  view  either,  by  any  means. 
Arrange  to  save  all  the  manure  you  do  make,  with 
great  care,  and  grow  clover  for  all  it  is  worth.  I  be- 
lieve you  can  thus  avoid  buying  nitrogen,  at  least  for 
a  long  time.  In  the  older  settled  localities,  mineral 
matter  may  be  needed  now,  or  soon.  When  it  is, 
experiment  and  get  it  in  the  best  way  you  can. 

Prof.  Thorn,  Director  of  our  Experiment  Station, 
after  a  great  amount  of  study,  in  his  bulletin,  "  Forty 
Years  of  Wheat  Culture  in  Ohio,"  says:  "These 
statistics  indicate  that  the  crops  of  Ohio  have  been 
slightly  increased  by  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers; 
but  it  appears  that  the  average  cost  of  this  increase 
has  equaled  its  market  value. 

WHEN  AND    How  FAR  APART   SHALL   WE  PLANT  ? 

When  shall  we  plant?  The  plan  which  I  stick  to 
is,  not  to  start  the  plow  until  the  ground  is  dry,  then 
plant  as  soon  as  I  can  get  ready.  This  rule  followed 
out  every  year  for  my  farm,  and  the  medium  early 
potatoes  that  I  grow,  gives,  I  think,  the  best  results. 
Of  course,  we  miss  it  now  and  then,  as  we  should  if 
we  planted  at  any  fixed  time.  But  we  think  the 
average  results  of  early  planting  is  best.  I  have  had 


POTATO    CULTURE.  393 

early  planted  potatoes  injured  by  dry  hot  weather 
during  the  last  two  or  three  weeks  of  their  growth, 
while  those  planted  a  month  later  lived  through  the 
dry  time,  and  made  a  fine  growth  during  the  wet 
weather  which  followed  the  drouth,  and  yielded  dou- 
ble what  the  early  planted  ones  did. 

I  will  take  the  chances  and  plant  e.arly,  regularly. 
With  favorable  weather  right  after,  potatoes  may  not 
be  injured  greatly  by  being  frozen  down.  They  will 
come  on  again  any  way,  side  sprouts  coming  up  from 
the  main  stem.  A  slight  frost,  which  only  blackens 
some  leaves,  is  of  little  consequence. 

I  have  now  given  some  of  the  objections  to  early 
planting.  There  are  many  advantages.  We  are 
quite  likely  to  have  showery  weather  here  in  July, 
and  that  is  a  good  time  to  have  a  crop  ripen.  It  is 
a  great  advantage  to  have  them  ripen  slowly.  Blight 
seldom  injures  the  early  planted  early  potatoes. 
They  are  out  of  the  way  before  blight  weather  gets 
around  much. 

WHEN    AND    How    FAR   APART    SHALL  WE  PLANT 

POTATOES  ? 

The  crop  is  secured  before  the  hottest  and  dryest 
weather  of  the  season,  as  a  rule.  An  early  crop  is 
very  seldom  injured  by  rot.  There  will  be  now  and 
then  a  year  when  the  early  crop  can  be  carried 
through  so  as  to  yield  quite  well,  and  a  dry,  hot,  fall 
injures  the  late  crop  seriously.  But  we  do  not  sell 


394   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

early.  We  dig  as  soon  as  ripe,  so  as  to  put  in  wheat, 
but  sell  when  we  can  do  best  —  usually  late  years, 
along  in  October. 

In  this  latitude,  Ohio,  I  would  not  plant  at  a  me- 
dium time.  If  not  early,  wait  until  late,  and  have 
the  potatoes  ripen  during  the  cool  weather  of  the 
fall.  Many  large  growers  all  over  the  country  prac- 
tice this  plan.  They  have  one  advantage  —  they  can 
sell  from  the  field  as  they  dig,  and  will  lose  less 
shrinkage  ;  but  they  do  not  have  as  good  weather  to 
do  their  work  in,  as  a  rule. 

DISTANCE  APART. 

In  regard  to  the  distance  apart  that  potatoes 
should  be  planted,  two  matters  are  to  be  taken  into 
account.  First,  the  shading  of  the  soil  keeps  it  from 
drying  out  as  much  as  it  otherwise  would  in  dry,  hot, 
weather.  The  moisture  from  a  shower  will  be  longer 
evaporating.  More  of  it  will  evaporate  through  the 
leaves  of  the  plant  and  less  through  the  soil  directly 
when  the  potato-tops  cover  the  surface.  The  soil 
will  be  enriched  by  the  shading  also,  or  the  tendency 
will  be  that  way.  Therefore,  it  would  seem  best  to 
plant  near  enough  together  so  that,  in  a  fair  season, 
the  vines  shall  grow  together,  almost  like  a  crop  of 
clover,  shading  the  surface  quite  perfectly. 

Second,  the  distance  apart  that  potatoes  should  be 
planted  depends  somewhat  on  the  richness  of  the 
land.  With  wheat,  the  richer  the  land  the  less  seed 


POTATO    CULTURE.  395 

should  be  sown,  because  it  will  stool  out  more  on 
rich  land  than  on  poor ;  but  with  potatoes,  just  the 
reverse  seems  to  be  true.  The  richer  the  land  the 
nearer  together  we  may  plant.  The  idea  is  this : 
There  is  only  a  certain  amount  of  plant  food  avail- 
able for  the  crop,  therefore,  vary  the  distance  apart 
as  nearly  as  possible,  so  that  there  will  be  just  about 
potatoes  set  to  use  up  all  this  food  in  growing  to 
nice,  good,  size.  If  you  plant  too  far  apart,  the  avail- 
able plant  food  will  not  be  all  used  up,  and  your 
tubers  may  be  too  large  ;  if  you  plant  too  near  to- 
gether, there  will  not  be  food  enough,  and  the  result 
will  be  smaller  potatoes.  Of  course,  as  seasons  vary, 
you  cannot  expect  to  be  always  right;  but  you  can 
come  nearer  to  it  than  if  you  put  in  your  seed  with- 
out any  care  or  forethought. 

Now,  with  these  two  matters  in  mind,  try  to  come 
as  near  right  as  you  can.  For  the  medium-early 
varieties  that  I  grow,  and  my  soil,  drills  about 
thirty-two  inches  apart,  and  pieces  of  seed  from 
thirteen  to  sixteen  inches  in  the  drill,  seems  as 
near  right  as  I  can  make  it.  This  pretty  much 
covers  the  surface,  and  still  is  not  close  enough  to 
make  tubers  smaller  than  my  customers  want.  If  I 
wanted  tubers  larger,  I  would  drop  pieces  farther 
apart  in  the  drills.  Thirteen  inches  has  been  our 
rule  ;  but  a  variety  like  the  Freeman,  which  is  in- 
clined to  set  a  good  many  in  the  hill,  will,  I  think,  do 
better  at  sixteen  inches  apart.  They  will  average 
larger  and  still  not  too  large.  I  tried  them  thirty- 


396   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

two  inches  both  ways,  and  some  grew  altogether  too 
large,  and  the  yield  per  acre  was  not  nearly  what  it 
was  with  a  piece  every  thirteen  inches  in  the  drill. 
Of  course,  the  variety  has  much  to  do  with  the  dis- 
tance apart  they  should  be  planted.  Some  of  the 
strong  growing  late  varieties  would  be  better  planted 
in  drills  thirty-six  inches  apart,  and  will  well  cover  up 
the  surface  then.  Varieties  that  have  small  tops, 
and  set  few  tubers,  such  as  the  Early  Ohio,  will  bear 
putting  closer  together,  or  using  more  seed  than  one 
eye  in  a  place,  as  we  do.  If  your  land  is  poor  and 
you  plant  far  enough  apart  to  get  good-sized  tubers, 
you  see  you  will  then  lose  part  of  the  benefit  of  the 
shading  of  the  soil.  Does  it  bother  you  to  see  how 
to  manage  this?  Only  one  way  —  make  your  land 
richer,  and  then  you  can  plant  closer,  and  shade  it 
more,  and  make  it  grow  richer  still.  "  Unto  him  that 
hath  shall  be  given"  every  time.  It  seems  hard,  but 
it  is  nature's  law. 


SHALL  WE  PLANT  DEEP  OR  SHALLOW  ? 

With  this  question  we  must  consider,  also,  whether 
we  will  cultivate  nearly  level  or  hill  up ;  for,  if  we 
plant  shallow,  it  will  be  necessary  to  hill  up  more  or 
less  to  prevent  the  tubers  from  growing  out  of  the 
ground.  Farmers  still  raise  potatoes  by  planting  in 
a  shallow  mark  and  then  hilling  up  with  a  plow  of 
some  kind  when  they  are  about  two-thirds  grown. 
On  undrained  clay  soil,  where  there  is  danger  of 


POTATO    CULTURE.  397 

stagnant  water  injuring  the  crop  in  a  wet  season, 
this  practice  had  better  be  continued,  on  the  ground 
of  choosing  the  lesser  of  two  evils ;  but  in  good  po- 
tato soils,  moderately  deep  planting  and  very  slight 
hilling  is  undoubtedly  the  better  practice.  There 
are  reasons,  of  course,  for  this  hilling  up,  which  is  so 
universally  practiced.  Farmers  did  not  have  smooth- 
ing harrows,  horse  hoes  and  good  cultivators  years 
ago.  The  plow  came  first,  and  was  made  a  general 
purpose  tool.  It  would  throw  earth  over  the  weeds 
and  save  hand-hoeing.  It  was,  very  naturally,  used 
for  this  purpose.  The  practice  was  a  necessity  with 
shallow  planting.  It  increased  the  crop  in  one  way 
and  protected  it,  while  injuring  it  somewhat  in 
another.  Father  used  to  insist  on  my  making  the 
hills  large  and  dishing,  so  as  to  "catch  the  rain." 
But  with  all  due  respect  to  our  fathers  and  other 
people,  I  cannot  help  thinking  now  that  this  plan  was 
not  in  accordance  with  common  sense.  If  you  will 
wash  out  a  hill  in  mellow  soil,  you  will  find,  before  the 
tops  are  half  grown,  that  the"  little  roots  have  crossed 
and  recrossed  all  the  space  between  the  rows, 
and,  of  course,  they  want  their  water  as  well  as  food, 
just  as  much  there  as  under  the  hills.  If  the  seed 
was  put  in  moderately  deep,  and  the  surface  is  kept 
nearly  level  and  constantly  stirred,  the  crop  is  in  the 
best  shape,  not  only  for  catching  rain,  but  to  endure 
hot,  dry,  weather  —  one  of  its  greatest  enemies.  One 
hills  up  his  potatoes  with  a  plow ;  what  does  he  do  ? 
He  piles  the  mellow  earth  which  should  make  a  mulch 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

all  over  the  surface  up  about  the  hills.  Instead,  he 
leaves  this  space  (where  a  part  of  the  roots  are) 
bare,  hard  and  exposed  to  the  hot  sun.  If  he  should 
cultivate  it  again  he  should  injure  the  roots,  which 
are  now  at  the  surface  (not  a  few  also  were  destroyed 
by  the  plowing),  and  the  soil  in  the  hills  will  certainly 
dry  out  more  than  if  it  were  down  nearly  level  and 
protected  by  a  mulch  of  fine  earth.  We  generally 
use  a  horse-hoe  once  during  the  season  to  throw  a 
little  earth  under  the  plants  when  they  are  about  half 
grown,  so  as  to  check  the  weeds  which  are  just  start- 
ing in  the  hills ;  after  that  the  shade  from  the  tops 
will  keep  them  down.  The  use  of  the  cultivator,  as 
many  times  as  it  ought  to  be  used  during  the  season, 
will  work  a  little  earth  towards  the  plants,  so  that, 
altogether,  perhaps,  the  hills  are  two  or  three  inches 
higher  than  between  the  rows  when  we  are  through 
cultivating. 

Suppose  your  field  is  somewhat  rolling  and  pota- 
toes well  hilled  up.  A  heavy  shower  comes  along. 
Most  summer  showers  are  heavy.  The  water  runs 
rapidly  off  the  higher  portions  of  the  field  in  the  little 
ditches  you  have  made,  and  either  leaves  the  lot  en- 
tirely, or  accumulates  in  the  lower  parts.  This  is  all 
wrong.  Where  you  want  the  water  most  it  does  not 
stay.  See  ?  Where  you  want  it  least,  in  the  low 
places,  you  get  too  much,  perhaps,  or  you  lead  it  off 
the  field  entirely,  and  later  your  crop  suffers  for  want 
of  it.  And  there  is  more  or  less  fertility  in  the  water 
of  every  summer  shower.  It  gathers  ammonia  that 


POTATO    CULTURE.  599 

has  escaped  from  the  manure  heaps  of  the  careless 
farmer,  as  well  as  that  from  other  sources,  out  of  the 
air  as  it  comes  down ;  and  it  is  a  positive  loss  of  fer- 
tility to  let  water  run  off  over  the  surface  of  your 
field  and  carry  fertility  with  it.  A  part  of  these 
losses,  often  nearly  all,  can  be  avoided  by  good 
drainage  first,  natural  or  with  tiles,  and  then  nearly 
level  culture,  and,  at  the  same  time,  we  may  get 
every  possible  advantage  that  ever  came  from  hill- 
ing up,  except  on  heavy  land  in  a  very  wet  season, 
perhaps. 

On  my  land  I  have  settled  on  four  inches  deep  as 
about  the  right  depth  to  plant.  I  would  put  seed  a 
little  deeper  rather  than  shallower.  Managing 
rightly,  with  smoothing-harrow  and  otherwise,  there 
is  no  trouble  in  keeping  a  crop  clean  without  any 
hand-hoeing,  and  to  do  it  more  cheaply.  There  is  no 
need  of  hilling  to  keep  the  weeds  down.  By  plant- 
ing four  inches  deep,  and  the  slight  hilling  spoken 
of,  we  get  a  depth  of  underground  stem  sufficient  for 
throwing  off  roots  and  tuber-bearing  stems,  just  as 
practically  as  though  we  planted  shallow  and  hilled 
up.  I  am  writing  with  reference  to  drill  culture,  which 
I  think  best,  and  will  speak  of  in  another  chapter. 
You  will  notice  that  I  do  not  speak  of  ''  level  cul- 
ture." The  term,  although  in  common  use,  is  mis- 
leading to  those  not  posted.  Exactly  level  culture 
is  not  at  all  practical,  except  during  the  first  part 
of  the  season.  A  little  earth  must  be  worked  in 
under  the  plants,  for  reasons  given,  usually;  and 


4OO   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

then,  again,  the  expanding  tubers  will  crack  the  soil 
and  let  in  the  light,  to  their  injury,  if  the  surface  is 
entirely  flat. 

SHALL  WE  PLANT  IN  HILLS  OR  DRILLS? 

There  are  many  reasons  why  the  farmer  who  wishes 
to  do  the  best  he  can  should  give  up  the  hill  planting 
for  good,  and  put  his  crop  in  drills.  It  requires  less 
handwork  to  keep  the  crop  clean  if  you  can  work  it 
both  ways,  is  the  usual  reason  given  for  planting  in 
hills.  That  was  all  very  true  a  few  years  ago,  but 
now  we  have  so  much  better  tools  that  is  possible  to 
put  the  crop  in  drills,  and  keep  it  clean  without  any 
handwork  or  hoeing  at  all,  as  a  rule.  Another  argu- 
ment is  that  it  is  more  work  to  drop  the  seed  (there 
are  more  pieces  to  be  dropped),  and  more  work  to  dig 
the  crop.  Yes,  and  it  is  more  work  to  mark  out  both 
ways  than  one  way.  However,  we  have  a  machine 
now,  and  the  potatoes  are  of  more  uniform  size. 
After  many  years  of  experience  in  drill-planting,  I  feel 
perfectly  sure  on  this  point  —  perfectly  sure  that  we 
get  more  dollars  to  the  acre.  In  showery  weather, 
when  planting  in  drills,  one  can  plant  right  up  as  fast 
as  he  marks ;  but  if  he  has  to  mark  both  ways  he  may 
get  caught,  and  have  to  do  the  job  all  over  again. 

Drill  culture  and  nearly  level  culture  should  go 
together.  One  may  not  always  be  advisable  without 
the  other.  Let  me  illustrate  :  I  drop,  we  will  say, 
a  one-eye  piece  every  foot  in  the  drill,  in  my  drill  cul- 
ture. Perhaps  two  or  three  good-sized  tubers,  not 


POTATO    CULTURE. 


401 


over  large,  but  of  quite  uniform  size,  are  the  results 
in  each  hill,  or  every  foot  in  the  drill.  Now,  as  they 
expand  as  they  are  growing,  they  crack  the  ground, 
of  course,  but,  as  there  are  not  many  in  a  place,  not 
much.  The  little  earth  that  our  slightly-ridged  culture 
puts  under  the  plant  prevents  light  from  getting 
down  to  the  tubers,  and  they  are  not  only  not  green, 
but  not  even  yellow.  Potatoes  are  often  ruined  when 
not  green  on  the  outside.  Now,  suppose  that  the 
potatoes  were  planted  in  hills  three  feet  apart  each 
way,  and  three  times  as  much  seed  put  into  the  hill. 
It  would  not  be  too  much,  perhaps,  or  more  than  is 
generally  used.  Say  you  have,  as  a  result,  twelve  or 
fifteen  tubers  in  a  hill.  Will  they  not  crack  the 
ground  very  much  more  ?  Of  course. 

With  proper  management,  on  suitable  soil,  drill 
culture,  deep-planting  and  very  slight  hilling,  promise 
the  up-to-the-times  grower  of  to-day  the  best  returns 
it  is  possible  to  get. 

WHAT  VARIETIES  SHALL  WE  RAISE  ? 

We  are  now  ready  for  the  seed.  The  best  variety 
for  one  to  grow  depends  upon  several  circumstances. 
!f  for  early  market,  you  want  very  early  ones  —  this 
for  the  gardener  with  a  home  demand,  or  for  growers 
who  want  to  ship  to  more  northern  markets.  If  to 
get  off  in  time  for  wheat,  the  medium  early  varie- 
ties, Beauty  of  Hebron,  New  Queen,  and  others, 

ripening  about  the  time  they  do,  will  be  best  in  this 

26 


4O2   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

latitude.  They  can  be  gotten  off  in  good  season  for 
wheat,  and,  as  a  rule,  will  yield  better  than  extra 
early  varieties,  under  similar  conditions.  If  planted 
in  this  locality,  these  medium  early  ones  put  in  quite 
early  will  make  a  crop  before  summer  drouth  gets 
very  severe,  as  a  rule.  If  you  live  in  a  region  where 
winter  wheat  is  not  grown,  and  you  are  in  no  hurry 
about  getting  them  off,  and  they  can  as  well  as  not 
have  more  time  to  grow,  varieties  ripening  later,  such 
as  the  Monroe  Seedling,  Empire  State,  Rural  New 
Yorker  No.  2,  etc.,  may  be  the  proper  ones  for  you 
to  plant. 

Now,  perhaps,  from  the  title  you  expected  to  find 
out  the  names  of  the  varieties  you  had  better  plant. 
But  this  I  do  not  propose  to  tell  you.  In  fact,  I  do 
not  know.  The  same  potato  varies  greatly  in  differ- 
ent localities.  For  ten  years,  perhaps,  the  Hebron 
did  us  grand  service.  We  could  not  find  any  thing 
so  good  for  some  years.  But  I  have  sent  some  to 
good  growers,  who  were  induced  to  try  it  again  be- 
cause it  did  so  well  for  us,  and  they  have  reported 
that  it  failed  miserably,  as  usual,  with  them.  It  has 
been  a  standard  variety,  succeeding  well  quite  gener- 
ally ;  but,  you  see,  with  notable  exceptions.  I  have 
sent  potatoes  which  yielded  300  bushels  per  acre 
with  me,  to  parties  who  never  got  one-third  that 
amount,  although  other  kinds  in  the  same  lot  gave 
large  crops.  Try  promising  new  varieties  in  a  moder- 
ate way,  and  find  what  is  best ;  and  don't  depend  too 
much  upon  the  yield  of  one  year.  A  different  season 


POTATO    CULTURE. 

may  give  very  different  results.  Again,  new  varieties 
soon  dwindle  out.  Be  honest  with  the  old  kinds 
when  you  test  something  new  side  by  side  with  them. 
See  that  they  are  side  by  side,  and  treated  exactly 
alike.  How  natural  to  give  the  new  kind  the  best 
place  and  extra  care  !  The  same  attention  might 
make  your  old  variety  surprise  you. 

I  would  not  be  understood  assaying  that  you  never 
need  any  thing  new,  or  that  your  potatoes  will  not 
"  run  out  "  in  time,  with  the  attention,  at  least,  that  it 
is  practical  to  give  them.  I  know  they  will ;  so  don't 
hold  on  to  them  too  long.  As  we  manage,  at  least, 
we  need  new  blood  from  time  to  time.  It  seems  to 
me  that  getting  seed  of  the  same  variety  from  a  lo- 
cality more  favorable  for  the  perfect  growth  of  pota« 
toes  is  for  a  time  equal  to  getting  a  new  variety. 
Good  potato  soil  in  the  far  north  is,  of  course,  the 
place  where  the  potatoes  do  best.  There  are  places 
where  400  bushels  per  acre  are  as  easily  obtained  as 
250  are  here.  I  have  practised  changing  seed  in  this 
way. 

When  the  Hebron  began  to  decline  I  went  to 
Northern  Maine  and  got  my  seed.  Seed  has  also 
been  bought  in  New  York  state  in  a  good  section. 

As  a  rule,  varieties  of  an  inferior  quality  are  large 
yielders,  and  the  kinds  of  high  eating  qualities  are 
not  the  most  productive,  at  least,  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions. You  must  select  qualities  to  suit  your  trade. 
To  sell  in  market  you  want  a  kind  that  is  known  and 
in  demand.  In  our  markets,  almost  all  early  pota- 


404   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

toes  except  early  Ohio  sell  as  Rose  or  Hebron. 
Everything  that  at  all  resembles  them  goes  under 
this  head.  All  long  white  potatoes  in  the  fall  are 
Burbank. 

SELECTION  AND  CARE  OF  SEED. 

My  usual  practice  has  been  to  use  for  seed  only 
nice,  smooth,  perfect-shaped,  well-matured  tubers,  in 
size  varying  from  medium  to  large.  Very  large,  over- 
grown ones,  and  those  that  have  prongs  on,  or  are 
otherwise  ill-shaped,  are  carefully  excluded.  In  short, 
I  use  for  seed  just  such  potatoes  as  I  should  like  to 
have  the  crop  all  be  in  the  fall.  The  best  time  to 
select  these  is  at  the  digging  time,  when  they  are 
first  thrown  out  of  the  ground.  I  have  even  gone 
so  far  as  to  follow  the  digger,  and  select  the  best 
potatoes  from  the  best  hills,  hills  perhaps  where  the 
yield  would  be  double  the  average  of  the  piece- 
With  this  much  care  in  the  selection  of  seed  one 
need  not  be  as  much  troubled  about  his  seed  running 
out.  It  certainly  will  not  run  out  so  quickly.  Some 
good  authorities  think  it  would  never  deteriorate,  as  I 
have  told  you.  What  farmer  would  think  of  sowing 
his  wheat  screenings  for  seed,  or  planting  the  corn 
from  the  poorest  ears  he  could  find  ?  Not  one ! 
They  select  their  best  corn,  or  at  least,  a  good  aver- 
age, and  sow  good  wheat  or  clean  it  up  and  sow  the 
best.  Why  not  do  as  well  by' the  potatoes  ? 

Selecting  the  best  seed  from  the  best  hills  at  dig- 
ging time  paid  me.  I  would  still  do  it,  but  we  use  a 


POTATO    CULTURE.  405 

digger  now.  When  we  dug  with  forks  it  was  practi- 
cal ;  it  is  not  so  now.  The  best  we  can  do  now  is  to 
select  the  best  part  of  the  field  and  pick  out  the 
best  potatoes  from  that  place. 

CARE  OF   THE  SEED. 

After  being  picked  out,  the  tubers  for  seed  may  be 
carefully  taken  to  the  cellar,  without  the  sun  being 
allowed  to  shine  upon  them,  and  stored  in  barrels. 
These  barrels  should  be  covered  with  old  carpet,  and 
then  every  care  taken  to  keep  the  cellar  as  near  the 
freezing  point  as  possible,  and  not  have  the  potatoes 
actually  freeze,  from  the  day  they  are  put  in  until 
they  are  taken  out  to  plant.  I  should  like  to  keep  the 
temperature  between  thirty-three  degrees  and  thirty- 
four,  if  possible,  all  winter,  and  I  have  gone  to  a 
good  deal  of  trouble  to  try  to  keep  it  so.  The 
object  is,  of  course,  to  keep  the  tubers  from  sprout- 
ing. At  the  same  time,  your  apples  and  other  vege- 
tables will  keep  much  the  better  for  this  low  tempera- 
ture. 

Of  course,  you  know  your  cellar,  and  will  run  no 
risks  from  keeping  it  so  cold  that  it  will  freeze  during 
a  cold  night.  We  see  it  stated  that  potatoes  will  be 
injured  for  seed  if  kept  colder  than  about  forty  de- 
grees. Well,  I  know  just  what  I  am  writing  about,  as 
I  have  kept  hundreds  and  hundreds  of  bushels  below 
thirty-five  degrees  for  months  at  a  time,  and  they 
grew  perfectly. 


406   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

The  barrels  with  seed  in  them  should  be.  set  up  off 
the  bottom  of  the  cellar  a  few  inches,  on  strips,  so 
cold  air  can  pass  under  them.  Use  tight  barrels  and 
cover  from  the  air  all  you  can.  The  tubers  should 
be  entirely  dry  and  cool  when  put  away.  I  would 
not  move  them  till  ready  to  plant.  I  have  tried 
handling  and  shoveling  over  to  prevent  sprouting,  on 
hundreds  of  bushels.  I  would  not  do  it  again.  It 

o 

injures  the  sprout  and  often  causes  it  to  throw  out 
side  shoots.  If  they  do  sprout  let  them  alone  till 
ready  to  plant ;  then  break  the  sprouts  off  and  close 
down  and  let  new  ones  grow. 

O 

BURYING  SEED. 

For  several  years,  I  have,  I  know,  kept  my  seed 
better  by  burying  it.  This  for  Northern  Ohio.  It 
would  not  be  so  practical  300  miles  south.  It  may 
not  be  needed  300  miles  north.  The  trouble  here  is 
during  the  last  month  or  so  before  planting  time. 
We  cannot  always  keep  early  potatoes  cold  enough 
to  keep  sprouts  back.  A  cold  storage  building  would 
be  the  perfect  place  for  keeping  them,  where  ice 
could  be  used  in  the  fall  and  spring. 

As  we  dig  early  to  put  in  wheat,  we  put  potatoes 
on  the  bottom  of  a  cool  deep  cellar  first,  as  it  is  cooler 
there  than  they  would  be  if  buried  at  that  time. 
When  the  earth  gets  cooler  than  the  cellar,  early  in 
November,  we  select  a  dry  place  to  bury,  where  no 
water  will  stand.  Better  if  it  is  on  the  north  side  of 
buildings,  or  hedge  or  trees,  so  it  will  not  thaw  so 

o     •  o  / 


POTATO    CULTURE.  407 

readily  when  the  south  wind  blows.  We  draw  out 
on  a  cold  morning,  when  cloudy  and  near  freezing. 
The  ground  is  then  cold,  and  we  can  cool  off  the 
potatoes.  I  should  like  to  have  a  cold  wind  blowing. 
We  put  them  in  a  long  narrow  pile.  Pile  right  on 
top  of  the  ground,  not  in  a  trench.  Then  we  put 
over  a  good  layer  of  forkfulls  of  straw,  laying  across 
the  base  first,  and  then  above,  and  lapping  over,  and 
finally  "  topping  out"  with  a  layer  of  forkfulls.  Then 
we  put  about  four  inches  of  earth  over  the  straw. 
When  this  earth  (four  inches)  is  frozen  partly,  and 
before  there  is  any  risk  of  a  heavy  frost,  we  put  on 
another  layer  of  straw,  in  the  same  way  as  the  first, 
and  then  some  ten  or  twelve  inches  of  earth.  Care 
is  taken  not  to  cover  any  more  than  enough  at  the 
base,  so  as  to  make  the  pile  steep  enough  to  shed 
water  well.  We  top  out  well  with  earth ;  pat  down 
the  sides  smoothly  with  shovel,  and  then  don't  think 
any  thing  more  about  it  till  a  cold  day,  say  in  the 
latter  part  of  February,  when  the  pile  is  bare  of  snow 
and  the  ground  frozen  solid  (clean  off  snow  and  let 
it  freeze  if  necessary)  ;  then  draw  out  a  big  lot  of 
straw,  or  clover  haulm  is  better,  if  you  have  it,  and 
cover  the  pile  all  over  and  four  feet  out  all  around, 
deeply,  two  feet  at  least.  This  will  keep  the  frost  in. 
Sun  and  wind  cannot  get  at  it.  Rains  will  wet  the 
straw,  and  then  dry  out  before  another  storm.  You 
see  the  point  —  get  the  potatoes  cold  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, and  keep  them  so.  Mulching  will  keep  frost 


408   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

in  till  into  April.  No  ventilation  whatever  is  given 
the  pile. 

Notice  the  two  dead-air  spaces  made  by  using  two 
layers  of  straw  and  two  of  earth.  This  makes  the 
protection  from  cold  and  from  changes  of  tempera- 
ture much  greater. 

After  putting  on  the  first  covering  of  earth  you  can 
spread  some  chaff  around  the  base  of  the  pile  to  pre- 
vent the  earth  that  you  want  to  use  for  another 
covering  from  freezing ;  otherwise,  some  cold  day 
when  you  must  finish  covering  to  protect  the  potatoes 
you  might  find  hard  shoveling. 

This  selection  and  care  of  seed  is  a  good  deal  of 
trouble,  but  the  time  seems  to  be  passed  when  we  can 
raise  a  large  and  paying  crop  of  potatoes,  or  anything 
else,  without  trouble. 

Why  all  this  great  care  to  keep  our  seed  potatoes 
from  sprouting  ?  Well,  the  first  sprout  that  starts  from 
the  eye  of  the  potatoes  is  the  strongest  and  thriftiest 
one.  If  it  is  allowed  to  grow  in  a  warm  cellar  and  is 
broken  off  at  planting  time,  the  eye  will  usually  throw 
out  two  or  more  sprouts  the  second  time,  smaller  and 
weaker,  and  the  result,  particularly  under  unfavor- 
able conditions  of  the  soil  and  season,  will  be  too 
many  stalks  in  a  hill,  and  weaker  vines  and  smaller 
tubers.  If  the  seed  is  sprouted  twice,  the  third 
sprouts  which  start  will  still  be  more  numerous  and 
more  feeble. 

Of  course,  you  always  remember  that  very  favor- 
able conditions  of  soil  and  season  may  over-balance 


POTATO    CULTURE.  409 

poor  seed.  A  man  may  even  plant  small  potatoes, 
that  have  sprouted  badly,  in  a  very  rich  garden  soil, 
and,  with  favorable  weather  and  good  care,  gather  a 
bountiful  harvest.  On  the  average  he  has  done  very 
well. 

Years  ago,  one  warm  winter,  we  were  unable  to 
keep  our  potatoes  for  seed  in  the  cellar  from  sprout- 
ing considerably.  They  were  early  potatoes.  I  well 
knew  the  risk  of  planting  such  seed,  and  early  in  the 
spring  I  sent  to  the  north-east  and  got  seed  that 
would  not  sprout  before  we  could  get  it  here  and  in 
the  ground.  But  I  did  not  send  for  enough.  It  was 
quite  an  expense.  The  season  might  be  so  favor- 
able that  it  would  make  very  little  difference.  Well, 
when  we  planted  the  last  six-acre  field  our  imported 
seed  ran  out  in  about  the  middle,  so  half  was  planted 
with  our  sprouted  seed.  The  season  was  dry  instead 
of  favorable.  All  summer  it  was  easy  to  see  where 
we  had  made  a  mistake.  In  the  fall  we  had  about 
an  even  hundred  dollars  less  from  the  three  acres 
where  our  sprouted  seed  was  used.  I  may  tell  you 
another  thing  right  here  that  mayhelp  you  sometime. 

Mr. sent  me  the  ten  barrels  of  seed  about  April 

1st.  If  I  put  them  in  my  cellar  they  would  sprout  be- 
fore we  could  plant.  Looking  out  ahead,  I  covered 
the  freezing  cold  earth,  a  square  rod  of  it,  with  straw 
some  three  feet  deep,  in  March.  When  the  potatoes 
came,  we  moved  the  straw,  placed  the  barrels  on  the 
ice-cold  ground,  and  covered  deeply  with  straw  again. 
I  have  since  opened  them  on  a  cold  morning  and 


4IO   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

found  the  temperature  of  the  potatoes  to  be  thirty-six 
degrees,  and  no  advance  in  sprouting.  "  Where  there 
is  a  will  there  is  a  way." 

PREVENTION  OF  SCAB. 

Suppose,  now,  you  have  selected  fine  tubers  for 
seed,  and  have  kept  them  perfectly,  so  that  not  an 
eye  has  started  to  sprout.  There  may  be  here  and 
there  spots  of  what  are  called  scabs  on  them.  This 
is  very  common  now.  You  may  have  some  new  and 
costly  variety  that  have  scab  on  them,  and  still  you 
want  to  use  them  for  seed.  What  you  want  to  know 
is,  will  these  potatoes  do  as  well  for  seed,  or  does  that 
law  of  "like  begets  like"  hold  good  in  planting 
scabby  potatoes?  It  does  according  to  our  best 
present  knowledge.  I  feel  quite  certain  that  Prof. 
H.  L.  Bolley,  of  the  North  Dakota  experiment  station, 
is  correct  in  his  conclusions,  that  the  first  cause  of 
scab  is  plant  organism  of  very  minute  character, 
which  attacks  the  surface  of  the  young  growing 
tubers,  eroding,  irritating  and  blackening  the  adja- 
cent tissues  —  a  sort  of  "bacteroid  fungus-like  affair." 
It  would  seem  certain,  because  pure  masses  of  the 
scab  plant,  grown  on  nutrient  gelatin,  free  from  all 
other  germs,  when  transferred  to  the  surface  of 
healthy  growing  potato  tubers,  will  invariably  pro- 
duce the  disease  at  the  point  of  application. 

Knowing  this  much,  you  will  readily  see  that 
scabby  seed  will,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  pro- 


POTATO    CULTURE.  411 

duce  a  scabby  crop.  Again,  another  thing  has  been 
learned:  The  disease  will  remain  in  soil  where  once 
it  has  been.  How  long,  we  do  not  know.  That  it 
will  stay,  already  for  business,  three  years,  I  know. 
The  fungus,  as  we  call  it,  lives  along,  waiting  for 
more  potatoes  to  work  upon.  Sometimes  these 
germs  in  the  soil  do  not  come  from  raising  potatoes 
directly.  They  certainly  originate  in  some  other 
way.  The  tendency  will  be  toward  getting  them  in 
the  soil  by  continuous  growing  of  the  crop  on  the 
same  land.  There  is  less  danger  of  all  such  troubles 
where  regular  rotation  is  practiced.  Two  years  ago 
we  plowed  up  land  where  we  had  grubbed  out  an  old 
orchard.  It  certainly  had  no  potatoes  on  it  for  forty 
years.  But  on  part  of  the  land  they  were  horribly 
scabby.  Some  cow  might  have  been  fed  parings  of 
scabby  potatoes  and  left  her  manure  in  these  places. 
I  simply  give  you  this  as  a  hint  of  how  much  trouble 
we  may  be  put  to  in  the  future  by  this  fungus.  By 
feeding  potatoes  to  our  stock  we  may  fill  the  manure 
with  the  germs,  and  then  scatter  it  over  our  land. 
As  stated  in  another  chapter,  fresh  manure  is  more 
likely  to  cause  a  scab  than  old  rotten  manure.  I 
have  a  strong  impression  that  horse  manure  is  worse 
than  cow  manure.  But  on  most  of  these  points  we 
are  yet  in  the  dark.  We  have  no  certain  known  way 
yet  of  destroying  germs  that  are  in  the  soil. 


4I2 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 


KILLING  GERMS  ON  SCABBY  POTATOES. 


I  will  now  tell  you  what  I  know  about  this.  We 
first  picked  out  three  good  tight  flour  barrels,  and 
soaked  them  up  till  they  failed  to  absorb  any  more 
water.  I  went  to  a  druggist  and  bought  seven  pack- 
ages of  corrosive  sublimate  (inercuric  bicklorid},  two 
ounces  in  each  package.  This  he  pulverized.  Next 
I  bought  three  wooden-pulp  pails.  Crocks  would  do, 
but  no  metallic  vessels  should  be  used.  I  put  two 
gallons  of  hot  water  in  each  pail,  and  a  two-ounce 
paper  of  the  sublimate  in  each.  This  I  stirred  with 
great  care  until  dissolved.  Then  we  put  thirteen 
gallons  of  water  in  each  of  the  three  barrels,  and 
emptied  into  each  one  a  part  of  the  sublimate  solu- 
tion. This  was  allowed  to  stand  in  the  barrels  about 
four  hours,  being  thoroughly  stirred  often.  Mean- 
while we  got  out  the  potatoes,  putting  a  bushel  at  a 
time  in  a  wash-tub,  and  washing  them  off  with  our 
hands  through  two  waters,  to  get  off  the  earth  and 
clean  out  scab-holes  as  much  as  possible,  so  poison 
would  be  sure  to  reach  all  points.  Having  the 
potatoes  washed  clean,  enough  to  fill  three  barrels, 
we  put  them  in  the  solution  and  let  them  stay  one 
hour  and  thirty  minutes.  At  the  end  of  the  ninety 
minutes  we  poured  out  the  poisoned  water.  We 
then  emptied  out  the  potatoes,  put  in  fresh  ones 
again,  and  poured  the  water  back  in  from  the  tub, 
and  so  on  with  other  barrels.  We  used  the  same 
water  but  three  times,  but  we  see  no  reason  why  it 


POTATO    CULTURE.  413 

/ 

could  not  be  used  until  worn  out.  It  would  be  poison 
as  long  as  any  remained. 

There  is  no  danger  from  the  poison  if  you  do  not 
get  it  in  your  mouth.  This  is  the  same  strength  of 
solution  that  is  used  in  surgery,  one  part  to  a 
thousand  of  water.  If  you  should  cut  yourself  when 
cutting  poisoned  potatoes,  it  would  help  the  cut  to 
heal,  instead  of  doing  it  harm. 

When  the  tubers  had  been  treated,  what  were  we 
to  do  with  them  ?  We  could  not  safely  put  them 
into  anything  that  had  had  potatoes  in  before,  you 
see,  because  the  germs  are  microscopic,  and  we  might 
get  some  back  on.  We  actually  had  to  get  some 
sheets  and  blankets  from  the  house.  Then  we  cut 
the  seed  right  there,  after  scalding  the  knives  and 
pans  we  used,  and  put  the  cut  seed  into  some  new 
grain  bags  that  had  never  been  used  before,  as  the 
only  perfectly  safe  thing  we  had.  For  dropping  by 
hand  we  used  the  poisoned  pails.  Some  of  the  best 
of  the  seed,  washed  but  not  treated,  gave  us  a  pro- 
duct about  as  bad  as  the  seed.  Always  treat  seed 
before  cutting. 

CUTTING  SEED. 

Shall  we  cut  it  or  shall  we  plant  it  whole?  Shall 
we  cut  in  halves,  quarters,  two-eye  pieces  or  one 
eye?  If  you  have  poor  land  and  rather  poorly  pre- 
pared and  small  seed  that  has  sprouted,  you  would 
be  right,  perhaps,  in  planting  whole  potatoes.  If 
you  are  two  or  three  steps  higher  up,  and  have  pretty 


414   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

fair  soil  and  seed,  and  tend  to  the  crop  moderately 
well,  a  quarter  of  a  potato,  or  possibly  two  or  three 
eyes  on  a  piece,  may  about  suit  you.  You  may  find 
it  as  well  to  use  more  seed.  Or,  perhaps,  the  whole 
potatoes,  if  not  too  near  together,  and  if  you  do  not 
grow  for  market,  may  still  give  you  more  bushels, 
big  and  little.  But  if  you  have  rich  land  and  good 
seed,  and  make  a  business  of  growing  them,  and  tend  to 
it,  too,  with  most  varieties  one-eyed  pieces,  the  proper 
distance  apart,  may  make  you  the  most  money. 

There  are  not  many  men,  probably,  who  have  cut 
potatoes  to  one  eye  as  long  as  has  the  writer. 

My  first  experience  was  with  the  early  Goodrich, 
I  think ;  then,  soon  after,  with  the  early  Rose.  The 
seed  cost  a  high  price,  and  we  cut  it  very  fine,  and 
gave  the  best  of  care.  Toward  the  last,  however,  as 
the  seed  more  than  held  out  to  plant  the  piece  we 
had  prepared,  we  planted  one  row  with  quarters,  one 
with  halves,  one  with  whole  tubers,  but  not  very 
large.  Now,  of  course,  the  last  row  made  the  best 
show  at  first,  and  the  one-eye  rows  the  poorest. 
Every  one  who  looked  at  the  piece,  myself  among 
the  rest,  judged  the  yield  would  be  according  to  the 
growth  early  in  the  season.  Well,  at  digging  time 
didn't  we  have  some  beauties  where  the  one-eyed 
seed  was  used  ?  I  picked  out  some  that  weighed 
two  pounds  each.  The  more  seed  the  smaller  they 
were ;  and  the  yield  from  one-eye  seed  gave  twenty- 
five  per  cent,  more  merchantable  tubers  than  the  ave- 
rage of  the  other  rows. 


POTATO    CULTURE.  415 

From  what  I  have  written,  you  will  gather  one  ad- 
vantage of  this  way  of  cutting,  this  light  seeding.  If 
the  seed  has  not  sprouted,  a  few  tubers  in  a  hill ; 
and  nearly  all  of  them,  if  not  planted  too  close  to- 
gether, grow  to  quite  a  uniform  size.  There  are  al- 
most no  little  ones.  Some  years  we  have  not  picked 
them  up  at  all,  there  were  so  few.  If  large  potatoes 
are  worth  one  dollar  a  bushel,  or  even  seventy-five 
cents,  we  pick  up  small  ones,  as  they  will  then  sell 
for  enough  to  pay  us.  They  are  worth  some  seven 
or  eight  cents  a  bushel  to  rot  on  the  land  as  a  fertil- 
izer. I  should  not  like  to  hire  men  to  pick  them  up 
to  sell  at  fifteen  or  twenty  cents.  They  are  not  often 
worth  that  to  us  to  feed  out. 

With  this  fine  cutting  there  is  quite  a  saving  of 
seed  to  start  with.  This  will  be  of  little  account  to  a 
farmer  growing  only  enough  for  his  own  use  ;  but  to 
a  large  grower  it  is  worth  looking  after.  The  amount 
varies  some  with  varieties,  as  some  have  more  eyes 
than  others,  and  the  size  of  the  tubers  make  a  differ- 
ence ;  but  say  seven  bushels  of  average  seed  will 
plant  an  acre  in  drills. 

Another  valuable  point  in  favor  of  light  seeding  in 
drills.  Scattered  along  the  drills,  a  few  in  a  place, 
they  do  not  grow  out  of  the  ground  as  much,  or 
crack  it  open  as  much.  They  must  be  kept  down  in 
the  earth,  for  highest  quality,  some  distance  from 
daylight.  This  way  of  seeding  gives  the  best  chance 
for  this,  and  for  nearly  level  culture,  which  is  also 
usually  best. 


41 6  A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

When  a  plant  comes  up  from  these  one-eye  pieces, 
of  course  at  first  it  is  smaller  and  weaker  than  where 
large  seed  is  used  ;  but  if  it  came  from  good  seed, 
and  is  well  cared  for,  it  will  make  use  of  all  the  avail- 
able fertility  there  is  in  the  soil,  and  turn  it  into  good 
even-sized  tubers.  What  more  can  you  ask  for?  I 
have  hinted  that  the  soil  must  be  fine  where  little 
pieces  of  seed  are  used.  If  it  is  fine,  it  will  in  the 
spring  nearly  always  be  moist ;  then  the  little  pieces 
will  be  safe  —  just  as  safe  as  whole  tubers,  if  the  soil 
is  well  enough  drained,  and  light  enough  so  they  will 
not  rot. 

It  is  always  safest  to  plant  cut  seed  as  soon  as  it  is 
cut.  I  should  prefer  it  to  go  into  the  ground  with- 
out drying.  I  never  dry  by  rolling  in  land  plaster. 
There  is  no  gain  on  my  land.  I  have  known  serious 
failures  from  cutting  large  quantities  beforehand.  If 
we  cut  a  few  hours  ahead,  we  put  the  pieces  in  bushel 
baskets  (they  are  cool,  of  course,  being  brought  from 
the  cellar  or  pile),  and  cover  and  set  in  a  cool  place. 
Keep  from  all  wind  and  sun. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  all  the  eyes  will  not  grow 
on  some  varieties  of  potatoes.  I  have  never  found 
any  kind  where  they  would  not,  if  properly  cut. 

It  does  not  make  any  great  difference  how  you  cut 
when  one-eye  pieces  are  wanted,  only  so  that  you 
have  about  an  equal  quantity  of  pulp  in  each  one, 
and  the  pieces  are  rather  chuncked  and  not  too  thin. 
The  most  simple  way  seems  to  be  to  take  the  tuber 
in  your  left  hand,  with  the  stem  end  down.  Then, 


POTATO    CULTURE.  417 

with  a  very  thin-bladed  knife  in  your  other  hand, 
you  are  ready  to  begin. 

Now  let  me  say  right  here,  that  we  have  no  iron- 
clad rule  that  every  piece  shall  only  have  one  eye  on. 
Our  rule  is,  that  pieces  shall  be  of  a  good  fair  size. 
Nearly  always,  with  good-sized  seed,  one  eye  pieces 
will  be  enough.  In  a  case  where  a  piece  would  be 
pretty  small  with  but  one  eye  on  I  would  cut  two. 
Practically  we  seldom  do  this.  The  knives  we  use 
are  cheap  and  good,  with  the  handle  extending  on  to 
the  back  a  little  to  protect  the  fingers.  Grind  them 
down,  before  beginning  to  cut,  as  thin  as  you  dare. 
They  will  then  go  through  the  potato  much  easier. 
The  back  should  not  be  much  thicker  than  the  edge. 
We  always  wind  a  rag  around  the  forefinger  to  pro- 
tect it.  With  such  a  knife,  one  who  is  used  to  it 
should  cut  from  eight  to  ten  bushels  to  one  eye  in  a 
day  of  ten  hours  and  do  it  nicely.  Of  course  it  will 
go  slowly  at  first.  A  woman  will  usually  cut  faster 
and  better  than  a  man.  They  are  more  used  to  such 
work  and  have  more  patience.  I  have  seen  a  young 
lady  cut  a  bushel  an  hour  right  along,  where  the  seed 
was  of  good  size. 

If  you  want  to  cut  small  potatoes,  Mr.  L.  D.  Olds 
of  Wisconsin,  who  is  pretty  good  authority,  cuts  off 
and  throws  away  the  seed  end,  as  I  do,  and  splits  the 
tuber  lengthwise  into  two  or  three  pieces,  according 
to  size.  I  have  cut  them  to  one  eye,  but  would  not 
advise  it  for  field  culture.  The  pieces  are  too  small. 
27 


41 8    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

CULTIVATION. 

We  will  suppose  you  have  the  best  variety  for  your 
soil  and  circumstances,  and  the  best  of  seed,  properly 
cut,  and  planted  on  suitable  land,  all  well  drained, 
and  fitted  in  the  very  best  way.  You  have  done 
rightly  so  far,  but  you  must  not  stop  giving  the  crop 
your  most  thoughtful  attention  daily,  right  along,  for 
two  months  or  more  yet.  After  that  you  may  take 
it  easy  for  awhile,  and  leave  the  rest  to  Providence. 
But  don't  you  trust  in  Providence  the  slightest  de- 
gree during  these  two  months,  until  you  have  done 
all  you  can  yourself.  Then  go  to  bed  at  night  and 
don't  worry  a  particle,  but  sleep  soundly,  in  the  full 
assurance  that  your  kind  Father  will  give  you  your 
reward  in  proportion  to  the  efforts  put  forth.  Nature 
wants  to  help  you,  but  she  has  her  fixed  laws,  which 
she  will  not  change  one  iota.  She  has  given  us  brains 
to  study  out  such  matters ;  we  use  them  or  take  the 
consequences.  Providence  will  never  keep  weeds 
from  drinking  up  the  moisture,  or  eating  the  plant- 
food.  She  will  never  keep  the  surface  of  the  soil 
stirred  for  you,  although  she  has  arranged  so  that, 
if  you  do  these  things  yourself,  in  the  best  way,  and 
on  time,  your  reward  shall  be  great. 

How  WE  CARE  FOR  THE  CROP. 
If  the  planter  was  used  to  put  in  the  crop,  the  drills 
all  show  plainly,  so  one  can  cultivate  as  well  before 
the  potatoes  come  up  as  after ;  in  fact,  better.     Go- 


POTATO    CULTURE.  419 

ing  over  the  land  so  much  with  horses  and  planter  has 
packed  it  pretty  solidly  between  the  rows,  and  so  we 
can  cultivate  deeply  and  thoroughly  the  first  thing  — 
tear  up  the  soil  just  all  we  can.  Within  a  week  or  so 
after  planting,  we  harrow  the  field  lengthwise  with  the 
Thomas  smoothing  harrow,  using  two  horses  and  tak- 
ing three  rows  at  once,  and  keeping  horses  between 
rows.  That  is,  we  harrow  the  drill  between  horses, 
and  one  each  side.  Within  four  or  five  days,  say, 
we  harrow  lengthwise  again  ;  and  then,  after  about 
as  many  more  days,  crosswise.  It  is  well  to  drive 
fast,  as  the  harrow  then  levels  the  ridges  better. 
These  three  harrowings  should  make  the  surface  en- 
tirely level'  and  fine.  I  would  not  ridge  up  much 
when  planting  with  a  planter.  You  must  get  the 
ridges,  whether  high  or  low,  leveled  down  before  the 
potato  sprouts  get  up.  Look  out  for  this.  It  will 
do  to  put  earth  over  a  sprout,  but  it  will  not  do  to 
harrow  it  away  from  a  sprout  and  leave  it  up  in  the 
air'  two  or  three  inches  higher  than  it  ought  to  have 
grown  before  the  leaves  come  out.  One  must  be  on 
the  watch  to  do  this  harrowing  at  just  the  right  time. 
Once  in  a  great  while  he  can  not  manage  this  any, 
•even  on  drained  land.  If  a  shower  is  likely  to  come 
in  a  few  hours,  and  you  harrowed  only  three  days 
before,  perhaps,  it  may  be  best  to  harrow  again  ;  for, 
before  the  earth  dries  after  the  rain,  the  weeds  may 
get  out  to  daylight.  The  rain  may  continue  some 
days.  You  must  not  take  any  risk,  but  always  strive 
to  keep  the  upper  hand. 


42O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

I  like  to  have  the  last  harrowing  done  just  before 
the  plants  come  out  in  sight.  Here  and  there  one 
may  be  out,  but  I  should  like  the  great  mass  of  them 
to  come  up  after  I  had  done  the  last  harrowing. 

Years  ago  we  used  the  Thomas  also,  after  the  po- 
tatoes came  up.  Now  we  have  a  better,  lighter  tool 
for  this  purpose,  Breed's  weeder.  As  soon  as  the 
rows  show  plainly,  we  use  this  implement  with  one 
horse  that  walks  between  the  rows,  drawing  the 
weeder,  which,  in  clean  mellow  soil,  harrows  the  sur- 
face lightly  between  the  rows  and  in  the  drills  or  hills, 
two  rows  at  a  time.  If  the  soil  is  packed  by  rain,  we 
cultivate  first  and  follow  with  the  weeder.  The 
weeder  is  a  very  light  harrow.  It  will  not  take  hold 
of  hard 'ground  much.  If  we  cultivate  first,  it  can,  of 
course,  take  hold  better  of  the  little  that  is  left.  For 
this  early  cultivation,  when  plants  are  small,  we  use 
the  Iron  Age  cultivator  with  its  fourteen  little  light 
teeth.  You  can  go  fast,  and  throw  no  earth.  It  is 
important  that  the  weeder  be  used  when  the  earth  is 
just  dry  enough  after  a  shower ;  and  not  too  dry. 
There  will  be,  perhaps,  half  a  day  when  it  will  do  its 
best ;  then  the  earth  gets  too  dry.  What  shall  you 
do  after  that  ?  Why,  as  we  do  —  have  enough  of 
weeders  to  go  over  your  field  on  time.  We  have 
two  and  can  stir  the  surface  of  our  field  in  less  than 
five  hours,  if  necessary. 

If  it  is  cloudy  and  not  drying  very  fast,  we  have 
done  this  way  :  My  son  and  man  cultivate  each  with 
his  horse  and  one-horse  cultivator,  and  I  follow  with 


POTATO    CULTURE.  421 

the  weeder.  As  they  take  a  row  at  a  time,  each  of 
them,  and  I  two  at  once,  you  see  I  just  keep  up  with 
them,  and  we  can  go  over  a  dozen  acres  in  a  day,  and 
cultivate  them  and  hoe  them  most  perfectly.  We 
continue  to  use  the  weeder  until  the  tops  are  quite 
large.  When  it  pushes  them  over  so  as  to  do  real 
injury,  one  or  two  teeth  can  be  taken  out  over  the 
rows,  but  we  have  not  done  this.  We  can  use  it 
about  as  long  as  it  is  needed,  without.  When  the 
tops  shade  the  earth  under  them  where  it  cannot  be 
stirred  with  the  cultivator,  the  weeder  is  no  longer 
needed. 

You  will  notice  that  we  use  the  cultivators  in  con- 
nection with  the  weeders,  even  if  the  latter,  on  fine 
soil,  might  do  alone.  One  can  hardly  overdo  this 
matter  of  tillage,  and  there  is  a  great  deal  in  having 
the  surface  fine,  as  well  as  freshly  stirred.  Don't  you 
forget  this. 

You  may  tear  it  up  roughly  on  half  a  field  with 
cultivators  having  large  wide  teeth,  and  I  will  use 
these  implements  on  the  other  half,  that  just  rake 
the  surface,  leaving  it  fine  and  level,  and  some  years, 
at  least,  I  will  leave  you  way  behind.  After  we  stop 
the  use  of  the  weeder  we  continue  the  cultivation, 
narrowing  up  the  cultivator  as  the  tubers  begin  to 
grow.  I  like  the  Planet,  Jr.,  with  the  one  and  one- 
fourth  steels,  for  this  purpose. 

For  simply  stirring  the  surface  after  potatoes  are 
well  started,  I  take  five  teeth  off,  and  put  on  five 
teeth  that  are  only  one  and  one-fourth  inches  wide. 


422   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

You  can  buy  these  narrow  teeth  as  extras,  and  you 
should  not  think  of  doing  without  them. 

About  the  time  the  tubers  are  beginning  to  form, 
or  just  before  the  potato-vines  begin  to  lop  over,  we 
have  found  it  best  to  use  the  planet  once,  with  side 
shovels  on,  throwing  a  little  earth  in  under  the  plants, 
for  reasons  given  in  a  former  chapter.  For  this  pur- 
pose, we  go  twice  in  a  row.  All  other  cultivation  is 
done  once  in  a  row.  The  rows  are  so  straight  that 
we  do  almost  perfect  work  on  each  side  at  once. 
Now,  a  very  important  point :  The  first  cultivation 
after  the  plants  break  ground  should  be  deep  —  as 
deep  and  thorough  as  is  possible  with  a  strong  horse ; 
then  give  them  the  soil  to  grow  in,  and  let  all  after 
cultivation,  without  any  exception,  be  shallow. 
About  one  and  one-half  inches  deep  is  all  I  allow.  I 
consider  that  the  time  when  cultivation  is  done  is 
important. 

We  aim  to  never  let  a  crust  form  after  a  shower, 
but  get  on  and  stir  the  surface  just  as  soon  as  a  horse 
will  not  do  injury  to  the  soil  by  packing.  We  must 
be  careful  and  not  start  too  soon,  and  be  ready  to 
rush  things  just  the  moment  the  conditions  are  right. 
If  it  rains  again  in  twenty-four  hours,  no  matter ;  we 
cultivate  again  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough.  If  it  is 
dry  weather,  and  does  not  rain  at  all,  we  cultivate 
again  in  a  week,  anyway,  as  the  earth  settles  together 
and  needs  it  by  that  time.  No  attention  whatever, 
is  paid  to  the  number  of  times  we  cultivate ;  we  just 
do  all  we  can  for  the  crop. 


POTATO    CULTURE.  •  423 

As  long  as  any  soil  is  exposed  to  the  sun,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  keep  the  surface  lightly  stirred.  When  the 
vines  cover  over  all,  then  shade  will  take  the  place 
of  cultivation. 

I  have  not  said  anything  about  hoeing  by  hand. 
We  do  not  do  any,  except  in  extremely  wet  seasons, 
or  at  the  ends  of  the  rows  where  the  tools  do  not  do 
good  work.  We  keep  our  crop  pretty  clean,  and 
have  for  many  years,  by  working  in  the  line  given 
above. 

WHAT  Do  WE   CULTIVATE  FOR? 

To  keep  weeds  down,  and  the  surface  mellow  and 
fine,  so  as  to  let  air  in  and  check  evaporation  from 
below.  These  are  the  main  reasons.  Have  you 
ever  stopped  to  think  how  much  damage  weeds  do  ? 
There  is  no  question  on  these  points;  they  eat  up 
plant  food  and  deprive  your  potatoes  of  it  just  as 
certainly  as  a  rat  eating  some  of  the  oats  fed  your 
horse  cheats  the  horse  out  of  some  of  his  food.  If 
you  let  them  grow  they  will  eat,  and  you  pay  the  full 
bill  in  potatoes.  Prof.  Hunt  told  us  at  an  institute 
this  winter  that  weeds  which  would  weigh  one  pound 
(dry  weight)  had  evaporated  from  the  soil  300  pounds 
of  water.  Think  of  this  when  you  let  weeds  grow, 
particularly  in  a  dry  year.  Potatoes  need  abundant 
moisture  ;  weeds  rob  them  of  it. 

After  a  shower  the  surface  of  our  field  dries  off; 
and  if  the  soil  is  in  the  least  heavy  a  crust  forms. 


424   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

This  is  hard  and  quite  impervious  to  air,  and  the 
evaporation  from  this  unbroken  surface  is  great. 
There  is  not  rain  enough  usually  during  the  season 
to  supply  a  crop  of  potatoes  with  all  the  moisture 
they  need.  There  is,  however  much  moisture  accumu- 
lated in  the  subsoil  below.  This  works  up  toward 
the  surface  by  what  we  call  capillary  attraction,  the 
same  way  that  oil  rises  in  your  lamp  wick.  In  this 
way  a  crop  may  get  considerable  moisture  over  and 
above  what  comes  directly  from  the  clouds  during 
the  growing  season.  There  is  a  limit,  of  course,  to 
this  supply,  and  we  may  save  it  from  waste,  not  only 
by  keeping  the  weeds  down,  but  by  having  the  sur 
face  lightly  stirred.  This  loose  broken  surface  acts 
as  a  mulch,  just  as  effectually  as  if  you  had  put  some 
straw  on  the  top  of  the  ground.  The  water  works 
up  through  the  firmer  soil  below  and  supplies  your 
crop,  but  it  is  prevented  from  reaching  the  surface, 
to  any  extent,  where  the  sun  and  wind  would  drink 
it  up  but  for  your  mulch  of  loose  earth.  'On  a  good 
soil  a  man  who  is  as  saving  as  possible,  in  this  line, 
may  get  a  fair  return,  even  without  any  rain  at  all.  It 
is  simply  wonderful  what  man  can  do.  But  he  must  do 
it.  Nature  will  never  do  it  for  him.  God  furnishes 
the  rain  and  the  brains.  You  are  a  free  agent  to  use 
one  or  both  or  neither,  as  much-  or  as  little  as  you 
choose.  Do  you  see  now  whyrwe  are  so  anxious  to 
stir  the  surface  after  a  shower  ?  Why  we  harrow  the 
field  as  soon  as  it  is  plowed  ?  Why  we  have  the  sur- 
face covered  with  second  crop  clover  all  winter  before 


POTATO    CULTURE.  425 

plowing  (one  reason)  all  in  this  same  direction  of 
saving  moisture  ? 

It  is  true  that  stirring  the  surface  causes  the  soil 
actually  stirred  (say  an  inch  or  two  deep)  to  dry  all 
the  faster ;  then  this  dry  loose  surface  prevents  the 
waste,  for  the  most  part  of  the  large  quantity  of  the 
moisture  below.  And  do  not  forget  that  air  in  the 
soil  is  necessary  to  the  growth  of  plant.  You  give 
it  a  good  chance  to  enter  when  the  surface  is  loose, 
instead  of 'dried  and  baked.  During  a  wet  time  cul- 
tivation is  not  needed  on  a  well-drained  soil  except 
to  keep  weeds  down.  When  showers  come  daily, 
tillage  may  stop  ;  but  be  sure  to  stir  the  surface 
right  after  the  last  one.  Better  do  the  work  for  noth- 
ing five  times  than  miss  having  done  it  at  this  impor- 
tant time.  It  would  be  easy  to  grow  potatoes  if 
we  knew  beforehand  what  the  season  and  weather 
would  be. 

I  have  said  that  all  cultivation,  after  the  first  time 
through,  is  shallow  —  only  about  one  and  one-fourth 
inches  deep.  Now,  I  want  you  to  know  that  I  am 
about,  and  tending  to  this  matter.  I  know  that  no 
careless  man  is  "riding"  the  cultivator  and  sinking 
the  teeth  three  or  four  inches.  I  will  have  no  boy 
work  in  this  line,  but  a  good  man,  and  he  is  plainly 
told  that  he  might  ten  times  better  be  sitting  in  the 
shade  than  running  a  cultivator  deep  in  my  field. 
Roots  pass  all  through  the  soil  searching  for  food. 
The  soil  was  made  for  them  to  grow  in.  The  more 
they  can  have  the  better.  But  practically  they  can 


426   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

get  along  without  one  and  one-half  inches  of  the 
surface  pretty  well,  and  we  must  have  about  that 
much  to  move  and  keep  down  the  weeds,  and  check 
evaporation.  We  do  not  need  more,  and  it  is  sense- 
less waste  to  take  it.  Deep  cultivation  diminishes 
the  feeding  ground,  or  destroys  masses  of  fibrous 
roots  and  puts  the  plant  to  the  expense  of  growing 
over  again.  I  prefer  to  have  my  vines  growing 
tubers,  without  having  to  stop  to  repair  damages. 
This  matter  of  damages,  however,  will  be  governed 
by  the  weather  that  follows  the  tearing  off  of  the 
roots.  If  it  is  hot  and  dry  it  will  do  more  damage 
than  if  wet  and  showery. 

BUGS  AND  BLIGHT. 

Where  the  Colorado  beetles  and  their  larvse  are 
troublesome  most  growers  spray  the  vines  with  a 
mixture  of  Paris  green  or  London  purple  and  water. 
Some  few  use  the  poison  dry,  mixed  with  land  plaster. 
Now,  so  far  as  I  am  concerned,  I  should  prefer  to 
drop  this  matter  right  here.  Our  land  is  right  around 
the  house,  our  home.  I  did  not  feel  quite  easy  about 
having  the  wind  blowing  over  a  dozen  acres  of 
poisoned  tops  and  then  right  through  our  grounds. 
I  felt  as  though  if  too  much  Paris  green  would  kill 
potatoes,  a  little  would  injure  them.  A  careless  man 
killed  two  acres  dead  one  afternoon.  Again,  I  must 
put  the  poison  on  myself  or  be  with  the  man  who 
is  doing  it. 


POTATO    CULTURE.  427 

All  these  things  together  led  me  to  experiment  a 
little  with  hand-picking,  and  we  found  that  by  going 
at  it  systematically  and  on  time,  we  could  actually 
prevent  all  damage  from  these  pests  at  less  expense 
than  we  were  at  while  using  poison.  Exact  figures 
were  kept,  so  I  knew  this.  Then  I  was  released,  for 
cheap  hands  could  pick  bugs,  an4  no  injury  was  done 
to  the  vines.  The  larvae  did  not  have  to  eat  the 
vines  to  get  the  poison  and  die,  Let  me  give  you 
an  example  or  two  of  how  I  have  been  "sat  down 
on"  in  regard  to  this  point.  At  the  "round  top" 
institute,  in  Washington,  on  "potato  day,"  I  was 
called  for  my  experience.  I  touched  this  matter  very 
lightly,  and  spoke  of  the  injury  that  I  thought  was 
done  the  vines  by  using  poison.  Mr.  Smith  had  just 
been  telling  of  his  big  crop  of  some  1700  bushels  on 
four  acres.  Instantly  some  sharp  friend  called  out: 
"  Mr,  Smith,  did  you  use  poison  on  that  big  crop  of 
yours?"  "Yes,  sir."  UA11  right,  that  is  all  I  want 
to  know.  That  was  a  good  enough  crop  for  me,  in- 
jury or  no  injury." 

Our  plan  has  been  to  pick  the  beetles  just  as  soon 
as  the  plants  break  ground,  and  keep  at  it  persist- 
ently for  a  time,  thus  preventing  the  laying  of  many 
eggs.  In  this  way  we  have  had  but  little  trouble 
with  the  larvae.  We  have  picked  the  beetles  in 
quart  glass  fruit  jars.  They  cannot  crawl  out  of  these 
handily.  For  gathering  any  larvae -that  may  hatch, 
we  use  a  pan  with  a  handle  attached,  so  we  do  not 
need  to  stoop.  The  pan  is  carried  in  the  left  hand, 


428   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

and  a  long  paddle,  made  of  a  barrel  stave  (which  is 
just  the  right  length),  is  used  in  the  right  hand  to 
gather  the  larvae  in  from  a  row  on  each  side.  We 
have  a  tin  pail,  holding  six  gallons  or  more, with  a  tight 
cover  at  the  end  of  the  field.  Into  this  we  empty 
beetles  or  larvae.  A  dose  of  boiling  water  at  night 
fits  them  for  the  fertilizer  pile. 

Strong-growing  varieties,  fertile  soil,  potatoes  al- 
ways on  fresh  land  (rotation),  all  these  things  tell. 
Bugs  eat  the  weak  little  plants  first.  You  have  .seen 
it.  Nature  is  down  on  the  underling,  "  survival  of  the 
fittest;"  "  unto  him  that  hath  shall  be  given."  Do 
you  say  those  cattle  are  not  doing  well  because  they 
are  lousy  ?  You  are  twisted.  They  are  lousy  be- 
cause they  are  not  doing  well.  Care  for  them  better. 
Care  for  your  potatoes  better.  Some  authority  has 
recently  declared  that  yellows  in  peach  trees  was 
caused  by  lack  of  fertility.  Bugs  would  do  preciously 
little  harm  here  to  an  acre  of  potatoes  fed  so  that 
they  would  grow  into  a  solid  mass  of  vines  in  six  or 
seven  weeks  after  coming  up,  even  if  not  one  was 
picked  off. 

We  observe  the  habits  of  the  beetle.  They  fly 
only  on  a  warm  day,  and  come  from  where  they  were 
the  year  before  to  the  new  field.  We  watch  the  out- 
side on  such  days.  They  always  alight  near  the  edge. 
Three  or  four  times  a  day  we  run  over  the  rows. 


POTATO  CULTURE.  429 

THE  BLIGHT. 

Within  the  last  few  years  it  has  been  found  by  our 
experiment  station  that  spraying  with  what  is  called 
the  Bordeaux  mixture  will  prevent  injury  from  blight, 
more  or  less.  Prof.  Goff  says  this  blight  is  not  the 
same  disease  that  causes  rot  at  all.  It  is  simply  a 
blight  or  rust  that  attacks  the  foliage  and  causes  it  to 
die  before  its  time.  Unless  one  noticed  carefully,  he 
would  think  the  potatoes  had  ripened,  perhaps.  Our 
early  potatoes  may  die  in  seventy-five  or  one  hun- 
dred days  from  planting.  When  they  grow  the  full 
time  the  crop  is  much  improved  ;  ten  or  twenty  days 
cut  off  at  the  last  end  diminishes  the  yield  decidedly. 
We  do  not,  however,  have  weather  suitable  for  this 
trouble  to  thrive  in  until  near  the  end  of  the  season, 
for  early-planted  early  potatoes.  From  what  we 
know  now,  if  I  grew  late  potatoes  I  would  spray  them 
every  time.  It  is  a  question  whether  it  would  pay 
on  our  early  ones.  I  asked  Prof.  Green,  of  our  sta- 
tion, last  year,  what  he  thought  about  it,  and  he 
doubted  whether  it  would  pay  me  to  spray.  If  I  can 
keep  my  potatoes  green  a  week  longer,  I  believe  that 
it  will  pay.  Prof.  Goff  gave  us  the  figures  at  the 
"Potato  Institute"  on  the  cost.  He  thought  five 
dollars  per  acre  would  cover  it.  About  half  for  ma- 
terial, and  half  for  labor.  Spray  three  or  four  times, 
beginning  when  plants  are  about  six  inches  high,  and 
spraying  once  in  two  weeks,  or  oftener  if  it  rains  very 
hard.  Prof.  Goff  says  the  Bordeaux  mixture  of  itself 


43°   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

will  help  about  keeping  bugs  off,  and  you  know  Paris 
green  can  be  put  in  at  the  same  time,  if  you  wish.  It 
seems  to  me  that  the  coating  of  leaves  with  the  mix- 
ture would  be  injurious  to  the  vines,  somewhat ;  but, 
perhaps,  it  is  better  than  to  risk  their  dying  from  dis- 
ease. 

Did  you  ever  hear  how  the  value  of  this  mixture 
was  discovered?  It  was  not  studied  out,  but  hit  on 
by  accident,  as  is  often  the  case.  Of  course,  the 
mixture  is  named  after  the  city  of  Bordeaux,  in 
France,  where  it  was  discovered.  As  I  remember, 
some  one  was  troubled  by  school  children  eating  his 
grapes  as  they  passed  along.  So  he  got  some  white- 
wash (lime)  and  put  in  some  sulphate  of  copper  and 
sprinkled  it  on  the  vines  to  protect  them  from  the 
children.  But  he  had  done  far  more  than  he  had  ar- 
ranged for.  It  turned  out  that  the  grapes  on  the 
sprayed  vines  failed  to  rot,  as  they  did  elsewhere, 
and  experiments  soon  showed  that  an  important  dis- 
covery had  been  made.  My  pencil  tells  me  to  get 
a  knapsack  sprayer,  and  I  think  I  shall.  They  cost 
only  one-fourth  or  one-third  as  much  as  the  carts. 
Of  course,  one  cannot  get  over  the  field  nearly  as 
fast,  but  there  is  more  than  this  to  think  of.  On  a 
large  farm,  with  100  acres  of  potatoes  and  head-lands 
to  turn  on,  I  would  get  a  cart,  as  well,  perhaps,  as  a 
sulky  cultivator.  In  our  little  fields  the  damage  from 
the  horse  and  cart  turning  right  on  the  vines  at  each 
end  while  spraying  the  field,  and  some  four  times 
during  the  season,  from  the  time  the  tops  are  six 


POTATO    CULTURE.  43  I 

inches  high  until  they  are  full  grown,  would  more  than 
pay  all  the  cost  of  getting  the  mixture  put  on  by 
hand.  This  is  the  way  I  figure.  In  my  lot,  the 
turning  on  vines  would  decrease  the  yield  on  six 
rods,  at  ends,  about  one-half.  That  is,  we  should  lose 
about  three  rods  per  acre.  A  man  can  spray  four 
acres  a  day  with  a  knapsack. 

We  must  begin  spraying  while  the  potatoes  are 
small.  It  will  not  do  to  wait  till  the  disease  appears. 
There  are  more  or  less  germs  in  the  air  at  all  times. 
These  lodge  on  the  leaves  and  get  a  foothold.  When 
they  once  do  this  you  cannot  do  any  good  spraying. 
The  spraying  is  to  coat  the  leaves  with  a  mixture 
that  will  prevent  the  germs  from  taking  root.  Hence, 
you  must  begin  when  the  plants  are  about  six  inches 
high,  and  then,  in  ten  or  fifteen  days,  spray  again  to 
coat  any  new  leaves  that  have  grown  out,  and  so  on 
until  growth  practically  ceases. 

THE  USE  OF  BUSHEL  BOXES. 

For  several  years  we  used  these  for  marketing 
early  potatoes  in  the  city,  as  long  as  the  skins 
slipped  at  all,  and  it  saved  us  much  work  and  made 
us  some  money. 

First  take  a  look  at  the  box.  The  first  ones  made 
were  thirteen  inches  by  sixteen  by  thirteen,  all  inside 
measurements.  The  sides  and  bottoms  were  made 
of  three-eighth  stuff  and  ends  of  five-eighth.  Hand- 
holes  were  cut  in  the  ends.  The  upper  corners  were 


432   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

bound  with  galvanized  hoop-iron,  to  make  them 
strong.  Getting  only  a  few,  so,  the  price  I  paid  at 
the  box  factory  was  $25  to  $30  a  hundred. 

Now  when  digging  for  early  market  my  men  just 
laid  the  tubers  in  these  boxes  as  they  would  eggs 
(no  throwing  in),  and  as  fast  as  one  was  filled  a 
cover  was  put  on.  These  covers  are  simply  pieces 
of  inch  thick  boards,  cut  about  fifteen  by  eighteen 
inches.  Potatoes  that  were  dug  one  day  I  took  to 
market  the  next  morning  on  a  spring  wagon,  of 
course,  with  a  canvas  cover  over  them  to  protect 
them  from  the  sun  as  well  as  from  the  rain.  They 
were  set  off  at  the  grocer's  and  then  put  by  him  into 
the  delivery  wagon  and  taken  to  his  customers. 
They  thus  reached  the  consumer  about  as  fresh  and 
nice  as  if  he  had  dug  them  out  of  his  own  garden. 
The  boxes  hold  a  bushel  level  full,  so  they  can  be 
set  one  on  top  of  the  other.  Do  not  round  them  up 
or  you  will  cheat  yourself.  They  hold  a  full  bushel 
when  a  straight  edge  drawn  across  the  top  just 
touches  the  potatoes. 

With  plenty  of  these  boxes  my  men  dug  right 
along  while  I  was  at  market,  and  fifteen  minutes  was 
time  enough  to  load  my  wagon  in  after  I  got  back. 
There  is  some  dead  weight  to  carry,  but  it  pays  twice 
over. 

Later  in  the  season,  after  the  potatoes  are  ripe,  and 
there  is  no  longer  need  of  handling  them  carefully,  I 
drive  through  the  field,  and  two  men  will  empty  fifty 
or  sixty  boxes  into  my  wagon  in  a  very  few  minutes, 


POTATO   CULTURE.  433 

and  the  boxes  are  left  to  be  filled  again;    this  for 

O  7 

drawing  to  market.  If  drawing  to  cellar  or  barn  or 
pile,  for  storage,  we  would  set  the  boxes  right  in  the 
wagon,  and  after  emptying  them,  put  them  back  in 
and  return  to  the  field,  and  scatter  them  along  as  we 
drive  down  toward  the  back  end,  and  then  turn 
around  and  two  men  will  put  filled  boxes  in  as  fast 
as  I  can  possibly  set  them  up,  and  in  a  very  few 
minutes  another  load  is  on.  For  field  work  I  con- 
sider boxes  far  better  than  sacks,  although  some  use 
the  latter.  They  will  wear  out  fast.  Our  boxes  have 
been  used  some  fifteen  years  and  are  not  used  up 
yet.  But  when  it  comes  to  loading  a  car  from  cellar 
or  barn  I  prefer  the  sacks.  We  shovel  a  bushel,  as 
nearly  as  we  can  (where  a  load  is  to  be  weighed),  into 
a  two-bushel  sack,  give  the  top  a  twist,  and  toss  them 
into  the  wagon.  It  would  surprise  you,  perhaps,  to 
see  how  quickly  two  men  will  toss  100  bushels  into 
our  wagon,  while  we  load  them  in  our  barn,  and  how 
quickly  I  put  them  into  the  car  while  they  empty 
them.  One  man  can  fill  sacks  for  two  more  loads 
while  we  are  gone.  This  is  the  best  way  I  have 
found  to  load  potatoes  on  to  a  car.  Perhaps  I  may 
as  well  say  right  here,  before  I  forget  it,  that  you 
want  nice  wooden  shovels  for  handling  the  crop,  if 
they  are  put  into  the  wagon  in  a  bulk,  or  for  taking 
them  out  of  the  cellar. 
28 


434    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

DIGGING.     WHEN  SHALL  WE  DIG  ? 

If  you  are  selling  in  market,  dig  as  soon  as  your 
potatoes  are  large  enough  to  satisfy  buyers  ;  that  is, 
if  the  price  suits  you,  and  generally  you  will  not  do 
better  by  waiting,  I  have  often  heard  farmers  say 
they  dug  a  piece  early  and  sold  them.  If  they  had 
only  left  them  till  they  were  ripe  there  would  have 
been  a  much  larger  yield.  They  also  hesitated  about 
selling  potatoes  at  a  good  price,  because  they  would 
grow  so  much  more  if  left  that  it  would  more  than 
make  up  for  any  decline  in  prices.  Usually  this  is 
a  mistake.  My  potatoes  have  turned  out  the  most 
bushels  when  dug  just  before  they  were  fully  ripe. 
They  are  plump  and  heavy.  And  when  they  ripen 
they  do  shrink  some.  I  believe  that  the  heaviest 
shrinkage  in  weight  of  potatoes  takes  place  within  a 
month,  about  ripening  time,  and  it  does  not  make 
very  much  difference  whether  they  are  in  the  soil, 
pile  or  cellar.  Shrink  they  will,  and  after  that  time, 
if  properly  stored  at  a  low  temperature,  the  shrinkage 
is  not  so  very  great.  But  now,  suppose  you  do  want 
to  sell  by  the  load  in  early  market.  You  want  to 
store  the  potatoes,  or  load  on  cars  in  bulk  and  ship. 
In  this  case,  we  in  this  latitude  always  dig  as  soon  as 
the  potatoes  are  entirely  ripe.  This  is  when  the  vines 
are  all  dead,  and  the  tubers  separate  readily  from  the 
roots.  We  do  this  even  if  it  is  in  August ;  and  if  we 
do  not  want  to  ship  we  store  them  till  we  do.  There 
is  nothing  gained  by  leaving  them  in  the  earth  longer, 


POTATO   CULTURE.  435 

and  there  may  be  loss.  I  don't  know  about  the  scab 
increasing  after  the  potato  is  ripe,  but  I  do  know 
that  wire-worms,  white  grubs,  etc.,  continue  to  put 
in  their  work.  If  they  are  numerous  they  almost  ruin 
an  early  crop  if  left  in  till  fall.  Again,  after  the  vines 
die  down,  the  sun  may  find  its  way  into  the  cracks,  and 
the  light  injure  the  tubers  some.  They  are  certainly 
better  off  and  safer  in  a  cool  cellar,  protected  entirely 
from  the  light,  than  in  the  hot  earth  during  August 
and  September.  There  may  be  this  single  exception  : 
If  the  potatoes  are  rotting  it  is  better  to  leave  them 
in  the  ground  until  the  trouble  is  over.  If  you  dig 
and  pile  them  while  rotting  badly,  you  will  get  dis- 
eased tubers  in  with  the  sound,  or  the  disease  in  the 
sound  ones  will  be  hastened  on  by  piling,  and  you 
may  have  no  end  of  trouble  in  picking  them  over,  and, 
perhaps,  lose  about  all.  We  have  not  had  much 
experience  with  rot.  One  year  we  lost  perhaps  1,000 
bushels  in  this  way,  in  August.  As  soon  as  it  came  I 
stopped  digging  and  selling,  as  it  was  almost  impos- 
sible to  tell  sound  from  unsound  tubers.  About  the 
first  of  September,  the  diseased  ones  were  all  soft,  the 
trouble  seemed  to  have  stopped  spreading,  and  we 
went  on  digging,  selling  and  storing.  Whenever  the 
season  is  such  that  our  richest  land  produces  300 
bushels  per  acre,  or  more,  we  are  apt  to  find  traces  of 
rot.  With  a  big  crop,  on  over-rich  soil,  I  should  want 
to  dig  as  early  as  possible,  and  sell  for  immediate  eat- 
ing. A  young  man  wrote  me  the  other  day  about  a 
very  rich,  heavy-manured  piece  of  land,  asking  what 


436   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

variety  he  had  better  put  on.  He  said  old  men  all 
told  him  his  crop  would  rot  down.  I  told  him  his 
best  chance  was  to  plant  Early  Ohio,  early,  and  dig- 
ging them  the  moment  they  would  go  to  market  and 
rushing  them  right  off. 

How  SHALL  WE  DIG? 

This  depends  on  how  many  you  have  to  dig,  and 
the  conditions.  If  a  small  grower  myself,  I  would 
dig  by  hand  with  the  four-tined  fork.  An  expert 
can  dig  an  acre  in  ten  hours,  where  the  crop  has  been 
kept  clean  and  the  soil  is  mellow.  A  young  man 
who  once  worked  for  me  some  five  years,  dug  my 
crop  in  1893,  at  a  cost  to  me  of  just  about  one  cent 
a  bushel.  His  best  day's  work  in  nine  hours,  taking 
rows  right  through  the  field  as  they  came,  was 
223  bushels.  It  took  two  good  men  to  pick  up 
after  him  and  pile  the  potatoes,  as  we  did  then.  Of 
course,  the  ground  was  clean  and  mellow,  and  the 
yield  large,  nearly  400  bushels  per  acre,  where  he  did 
his  best  day's  work,  and  the  man  was  a  real  expert. 
He  dug  nearly  all  of  my  twenty-four  acres  alone,  get- 
ting done  about  the  middle  of  October,  besides  help- 
ing some  at  other  work. 

I  wonder  if  I  can  tell  you  how  to  use  the  fork  so 
as  to  help  you.  Set  it  into  the  ground  just  back 
far  enough  to  never  "stick "the  tubers,  and  just 
deep  enough  not  to  miss  any,  and  then,  with  a  quick, 
curved  and  backward  flirt,  scatter  the  earth  and  leave 
all  tubers  in  sight.  The  ground  should  be  mellow, 


POTATO    CULTURE.  437 

so  this  can  be  done  without  putting  the  foot  upon 
the  fork.  With  one-eye  seed,  in  drills,  my  boss 
digger  would  walk  right  along  and  nearly  always 
throw  out  a  hill  clean  with  a  single  motion.  He  had 
excellent  judgment,  skill  and  great  strength.  It 
was  very  seldom '  that  he  "  stuck "  a  tuber,  and  it 
seemed  to  hurt  him  when  he  did,  and  he  would  not 
leave  a  bushel  in  the  ground  on  ten  acres.  I  con- 
sider the  fork  as  far  ahead  of  the  hook  or  any  other 
implement,  for  hand-digging,  and  with  good  help  I 
would  to-day  take  it  in  preference  to  any  cheap  digger 
I  have  used. 

A  SUCCESSFUL  DIGGER. 

This  is  the  Hoover.  It  is  somewhat  complicated 
and  costly,  and  it  takes  power  to  draw  it.  I  can  use 
it,  and  never  break  down,  because  I  see  to  it  that 
everything  is  right,  and  tight  and  well  oiled.  Two 
strong  horses  might  draw  this  digger  on  light  soil ; 
in  fact,  I  have  thus  drawn  it ;  but  to  go  right  along 
on  heavier  soil,  or  when  dry,  and  to  let  it  down  so  as 
to  get  under  all  tubers  and  not  cut  any,  one  wants 
three  or  four  horses.  I  use  four  —  one  team  ahead 
of  the  other,  so  we  can  take  off  the  front  team  and 
us'^  them  on  the  wagon  to  draw  in  a  load  and  bring 
out  more  boxes  from  time  to  time,  leaving  the  other 
team  with  the  digger. 

Now,  just  what  will  this  digger  do?  On  my  land, 
except  on  two  or  three  little  hill-sides,  it  will  go  right 
along,  unless  it  is  too  wet,  and  take  every  potato  out 


438   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

of  the  earth,  shake  all  earth  off,  and  leave  the  tubers 
in  a  nice  narrow  row  on  top,  where  they  can  be  picked 
up  faster  than  after  the  best  hand  digging.  Now, 
this  is  for  the  varieties  we  grow  that  do  not  spread 
much  in  the  soil.  The  machine  would  not  dig  the 
old  Peachblow  clean. 

On  level  or  moderately  rolling  land  that  is  clean, 
free  from  stones,  and  fairly  mellow,  I  could  do  a  job 
that  would  do  your  eyes  good  —  well,  you  may  almost 
call  it  a  perfect  job,  and  still,  once  in  a  while  I  cut  or 
bruise  a  tuber,  but  not  nearly  as  many  as  I  would  by 
digging  with  a  fork.  You  may  call  the  work  practi- 
cally perfect.  Of  course,  the  machine  has  no  busi- 
ness in  a  field  full  of  large  or  fixed  stones. 

ROTATION    AND    CLOVER. 

A  rotation  of  crops  is  needed.  We  cannot  to  ad- 
vantage grow  potatoes  right  along  year  after  year  on 
the  same  ground.  The  ground  gets  tired  of  growing 
one  crop  only.  The  ingredients  used  by  it  become 
exhausted,  or  some  of  them  do,  and  then  enemies  to 
the  crop  increase  greatly  when  it  is  grown  continuous 
without  change.  A  short  rotation,  where  each  crop 
occupies  the  ground  a  single  year,  helps  greatly  about 
warding  off  damage  by  all  the  various  pests.  They 
hardly  have  a  chance  to  get  a  foot-hold  before  their 
feeding-ground  is  torn  up  and,  perhaps,  a  crop  put  in 
they  do  not  like.  Such  troubles  as  the  scab  and 
blight  are  doubtless  made  worse  by  growing  crop  af- 


POTATO    CULTURE.  439 

ter  crop  on  the  same  soil  But  a  great  advantage 
that  comes  to  us  from  rotation  is  a  chance  to  bring 
in  what  is  called  a  renovating  crop  once  in  from 
three  to  five  years.  A  renovating  crop  is  one  that 
gathers  up  fertility  and  leaves  the  soil  richer  than  it 
was  before,  in  available  fertility.  Clover  is  our  most 
practical  plant  for  this  purpose  in  this  locality,  and 
over  a  large  portion  of  the  country. 

In  traveling  thousands  of  miles  both  east  and  west, 
month  after  month,  I  could  not  help  noticing  that 
most  fields  are  seeded  with  timothy  and  compara- 
tively few  with  clover.  Well,  it  is  a  change  and  rest 
to  seed  down  with  timothy.  It  is  rotation,  but  not 
renovation  in  the  slightest  degree.  Timothy  feeds 
on  the  soil  exactly  as  wheat,  corn  and  potatoes  do, 
and  leaves  it  just  so  much  poorer.  Timothy  eats 
nitrogen,  as  the  rural  New  Yorker  lately  put  it,  while 
clover  gathers  it. 

Now  clover  in  regular  rotation,  in  the  place  of 
timothy,  if  you  can  on  any  soil  where  it  is  reasonably 
at  home  will  do  just  this  :  It  will  give  you  about 
twice  as  many  tons  of  hay  per  acre,  if  you  want  feed; 
it  is  worth  about  one-third  more  per  ton  to  feed  out 
and  about  one-third  more  as  fertilizers.  Or,  if  you 
take  in  to  account  the  fact  that  there  is  twice  as 
much  of  it,  the  clover  is  worth  three  times  as  much 
as  a  fertilizer  per  acre  as  the  timothy,  above  ground 
without  counting  the  roots.  The  roots  are  also 
worth  far  more  than  the  timothy  roots  as  a  fertilizer. 
Now  the  question  comes  up  that  is  all  important. 


440    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Where  does  the  clover  get  this  excess  of  fertility  ? 
If  from  the  soil  directly,  as  does  the  timothy,  then 
we  gain  nothing  in  the  end,  as  we  are  only  running 
our  land  down  faster.  But  at  last  it  is  known  that 
this  is  not  a  fact.  The  clover  has  the  ability  to  ab- 
sorb through  a  peculiar  growth  on  its  roots,  free 
nitrogen  from  the  air.  At  market  rates  for  the 
nitrogen,  there  is  in  the  air  resting  on  a  square  rod 
on  your  farm  more  than  $97,000  worth.  We  need 
not  worry  about  the  supply  given  out  you  see. 

Of  course,  clover  can  get  no  mineral  matter  from 
the  air.  It  must  get  that  from  the  earth  as  other 
crops  do;  but  there  is  this  difference,  clover  is  a  deep 
feeder.  It  sends  its  roots  down  far,  and  gathers  up 
and  brings  to  the  surface.  Perhaps  it  gets  what 
naturally  exists  in  the  subsoil,  but  it  also  lays  hold 
of  what  is  constantly  leaching  down  with  the  water 
of  heavy  rains,  and  what  has  got  below  the  reach  of 
more  surface  feeding  plants.  It  gathers  up  escaping 
nitrates  as  well  as  mineral  matter,  and  practically  all 
comes  to  the  surface  again,  where  other  crops  can 
get  it  when  you  plow  the  sod  under.  Further,  clover 
has  done  its  best  in  the  way  of  drawing  from  air  and 
subsoil  at  the  end  of  two  season's  growth  (one  with 
the  grain  it  was  sowed  with).  To  make  the  most  of 
it  as  a  renovating  crop,  one  needs  to  turn  it  under 
then,  or  in  the  spring  following,  and  turn  the  fer- 
tility into  money  by  putting  in  some  suitable  crop. 
Here  is  where  many  fail.  They  let  the  clover  grow 


POTATO    CULTURE.  441 

long  and  run  out,  and  much  of  the  work  done  by  the 
clover  is  lost. 

I  might  speak  of  the  benefits  that  come  from  shad- 
ing the  ground  by  having  it  densely  covered  by 
clover  practically  all  the  time  for  two  seasons.  I  can- 
not give  it  to  you  in  dollars  and  cents,  but  it  is  work- 
ing in  accordance  with  nature's  laws,  that  covered 
shaded  land  grows  richer,  and  large  profit  will  come 
from  it. 

A  ton  of  timothy  hay  is  worth  as  a  fertilizer,  on  a 
base  of  market  rates  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  potash  $5.48;  a  ton  of  clover  $8.20.  This  is 
from  the  highest  authorities  in  the  land.  It  is  essen- 
tially correct,  just  as  certainly  as  that  two  and  two 
make  four. 

Now  you  may  see  why  fertilizers  show  no  results 
on  my  clover  land.  On  an  acre,  the  clover  furnishes 
fertility  equal  to  about  one  and  a  half  tons  of  Mapes 
complete  potatoe  manure,  costing  (this  year)  $41 
per  ton,  and  I  have  got  it  without  any  loss  of  use  of 
the  land  for  a  crop,  and  almost  no  cost,  only  care  and 
attention. 

There  are  many  points  I  would  like  to  speak  about 
clover,  that  have  been  jumped  over.  Here  is  one  : 
I  said  that  timothy  feeds  in  the  soil  directly,  etc. 
Notice  the  timothy  sod,  or  the  red  top,  or  blue-grass 
sod,  or  a  wheat  or  rye  sod,  for  that  matter.  If  a 
heavy  growth  the  soil  is  full  of  roots,  enough  to  hold 
it  together  till  you  turn  it  over,  and  it  takes  an  imple- 
ment like  a  cutaway  harrow  to  make  a  seed  bed. 


442   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Now  notice  the  growth  of  clover  roots.  The  tap 
root  goes  right  down  through  the  soil,  taking  only 
enough  to  support  it  till  it  gets  down.  Then  it  sends 
out  its  fibrous  roots,  far  and  deep  to  gather  up  fer- 
tility, which  is  stored  in  the  large  tap  root,  near  the 
surface  and  in  the  top. 

MY  ROTATION. 

After  many  changes  I  have  settled  on  a  three  year 
rotation,  of  clover,  potatoes,  and  wheat  This  is  the 
best  I  can  study  up  for  our  circumstances.  No  stock 
is  kept  further  than  our  family  horse  and  cow.  For 
several  years  we  have  kept  no  more  stock  than  this, 
and  grew  only  potatoes  and  wheat.  We  cut  just 
what  clover  we  want  to  feed  out.  As  we  feed  horses 
in  the  barn  most  of  the  year,  this  takes  considerable  ; 
about  all  the  first  crop  of  clover.  The  clover  that 
grows  after  the  wheat  is  removed  is.  clipped  and  left 
to  go  back  on  the  land,  and  feed  the  potatoes  directly. 
Meanwhile  it  shades  the  ground  and  thus  enriches 
it.  We  usually  mow  it  twice,  when  it  is  from  eight 
to  twelve  inches  high. 

The  first  crop  next  season  is  usually  cut  for  hay, 
early.  The  crop  we  harrow  down,  with  the  Thomas 
harrow,  when  about  knee  high,  just  before  it  falls 
down,  in  lands,  the  way  we  plow  in  the  spring.  Thus 
it  plows  under  easily,  covers  the  surface  more  evenly, 
and  it  is  prevented  from  ripening  so  quickly.  It  con- 
tinues to  grow  much  longer  (.nore  fertility  gathered) 


POTATO   CULTURE.  443 

as  it  tries  to  grow  up  again,  and  form  seed,  the 
object  of  its  existence.  I  think  I  make  it  grow 
a  month  longer  by  this  breaking  flat  down.  It  is 
best  done  when  wet  with  dew.  This  clover  is  not 
plowed  under  till  spring,  you  will  notice  ;  more  shad- 
ing and  live  roots  in  the  soil  to  prevent  waste,  and  no 
surface  wash.  No  animals  are  allowed  to  pasture  on 
the  clover  at  any  time  during  the  rotation.  We  can- 
not afford  to  tramp  the  land. 

Now,  this  is  the  way  we  have  been  farming  for 
some  time.  What  we  have  done  has  paid.  We  have 
had  a  good  income  and  were  not  overworked.  There 
has  been  enough  to  do  during  the  eight  months  from 
April  ist  to  December  ist,  and  still  not  so  much  that 
we  could  not  attend  to  our  fruit  garden  and  lawn, 
and  flowers,  and  have  a  reasonable  amount  of  time  — 
yes,  quite  a  little  of  it,  for  recreation.  Myself  and 
one  good  man  could  do  most  of  this,  if  I  should  work 
as  hard  as  I  once  did. 

There  is  no  better  preparation  for  wheat  than 
working  the  land  all  summer  in  potatoes,  unless  the 
fall  is  very  dry.  The  potatoes  draw  largely  upon 
the  potash  in  the  soil,  and  the  wheat  on  the  phos- 
phoric acid ;  and  thus  between  them  they  keep  a  fair 
balance. 

This  is  a  good  rotation — one  that  I  cannot  im- 
prove on,  perhaps,  for  our  circumstances  ;  and  still 
there  is  just  a  possibility  that  I  am  growing  clover 
too  much.  I  see  no  trouble  as  yet,  but  you  notice 
that  clover  is  growing  on  the  land  two  seasons  out 


444   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

of  three  —  one  in  the  wheat.  This  is  too  much.  A 
four-year  rotation  might  be  better;  under  some  cir- 
cumstances it  would  be. 

ROTATION   FOR  A  DAIRY  FARM. 

Potato  growing  and  dairying  will  go  fairly  well 
together,  under  some  circumstances  —  say  where 
there  is  a  father  and  grown  son,  one  of  whom  can 
take  charge  of  the  dairying  and  the  other  of  the 
crops.  This  will  give  a  chance  for  an  excellent  four- 
year  rotation.  It  would  be  this  : 

1.  Clover  manured  for  corn. 

2.  Corn  for  the  silo,  followed  by  rye. 

3.  Potatoes  on  the  rye  sod. 

4.  Wheat  seed  with   clover  and  perhaps  a   little 
timothy. 

In  this  case  I  would  still  use  a  little  manure,  what 
might  be  needed  on  the  young  clover,  after  taking 
off  the  wheat,  as  advised  in  chapter  2.  This  would 
be  a  perfectly  safe  rotation,  and  a  good  one.  I 
would  cut  all  clover  for  hay  in  this  case.  Clover  hay 
cut  early  and  good  corn  ensilage,  makes  a  ration  for 
cows  that  is  almost  perfect,  needing  only  the  addition 
of  a  little  wheat  bran  and  oilmeal  or  cotton  seed 
meal.  The  rye  would  prevent  waste  of  fertility  from 
the  corn  stubble.  The  potatoes  would  have  old  fer- 
tility, which  is  so  much  better  than  fresh  manure. 
Corn  loves  fresh  manure.  The  wheat  would  give 
straw  for  bedding  the  cows,  I  would  not  advise,  as 


POTATO   CULTURE.  445 

a  rule,  the  growing  of  any  more  crops  than  those 
named.  If  oats  are  wanted,  better  buy  them,  where 
wheat  does  well.  (Of  course,  this  rotation  will  not 
do  for  all  localities.)  Give  all  your  attention  to  the 
cows  and  potatoes  rather  than  undertake  more. 

I  promised  to  tell  you  about  getting  rid  of  the 
ravages  of  the  white  grub,  or  how  not  to  have  them. 
This  short  rotation,  one  year  in  a  crop,  is  a  part  of 
the  plan.  The  rest  is,  to  have  such  heavy  crops  of 
clover,  so  thick,  and  shading  the  ground  so  thor- 
oughly, that  the  May  beetle  that  lays  the  eggs  will 
not  be  fool  enough  to  deposit  them  in  such  a  cool, 
damp  place,  where  they  would  never  hatch,  but  will 
fly  away  to  some  thinner  sod  somewhere  else.  She 
will  lay  some  eggs  in  thin  wheat,  I  find,  or,  perhaps, 
in  good  wheat,  but  not  to  any  great  extent.  When 
we  find  a  few  grub-eaten  potatoes,  it  is,  as  a  rule,  if 
not  always,  where  there  was  a  thinnish  spot  in  the 
clover.  A  little  more  manure  on  such  spots,  where 
clover  is  young,  is  the  best  remedy. 

PRODUCTION  AND  PROFIT. 

Average  crops,  managed  in  average  ways  no  longer 
pay  any  profit,  nor  will  they  ever  again.  Two  things 
the  successful  farmer  of  the  future  must  do  :  he  must 
get  larger  returns  per  acre  than  the  average,  and  he 
must  reduce  the  cost  of  production.  If  you  drain 
the  wet  places  you  will  get  more  per  acre.  The 
clover  rotation  gives  us  cheaper  and  safer  food  and 
so  reduces  the  cost  of  production.  Cutting  to  one 


44-6   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

eye  saves  money  (seed)  and  is  managed  so  as  to  give 
as  good  results.  With  drill  culture  and  long  straight 
rows  we  cultivate  at  half  the  cost.  Level  culture 
saves  plant-food  and  moisture,  while  shallow  culture 
prevents  injury  to  the  roots,  thus  increasing  the  yield. 
Good  sound  unsprouted  seed  will  show  a  great  gain 
over  sprouted  seed.  The  boxes  and  wagons  will 
enable  us  to  make  another  gain  in  handling  the  crop, 
thus  saving  in  expense. 

Success  will  come,  but  it  is  faithful,  persistent, 
long-continued,  never-tiring,  well-directed  work  that 
brings  it. 


The  editors  wish  to  acknowledge  their  indebtedness  to  A.  I.  ROOT, 
of  Medina,  Ohio,  the  publisher  of  "  A.  B.  C.  of  Potato  Culture,  by 
T.  B.  TERRY,"  who  courteously  placed  trie  above  excellent  work  at 
their  disposal. 

EDITORS. 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  People. 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW. 


BY  B.  A.  SMITH. 

THE  NECESSITY. 

PARLIAMENTARY  LAW  is  that  system  of 
procedure  by  which  any  organized  assembly 
arrives  at  a  definite  conclusion.  A  little  reflection 
will  show  at  once  that  no  collection  of  persons  hav- 
ing assembled  for  some  definite  purpose,  can  obtain 
its  perfect  accomplishment  without  following  some 
method  of  procedure. 

This  method  may  be  some  pre-arranged  system,  or 
it  may  be  that  procedure  which,  by  frequent  usage, 
has  come  to  be  generally  understood.  To  attempt 
to  transact  the  business  of  the  assembly  without  such 
a  plan  either  expressed  or  implied  would  be  to  defeat 
the  purpose  for  which  it  came  into  existence.  To 
avoid  disorder  and  to  proceed  with  a  dignity  worthy 
the  object  for  which  the  assembly  is  created  so  that 
the  decision  finally  obtained  shall  represent  the  best 
judgment  of  those  who  have  thus  been  called  to- 
gether is  the  object  of  parliamentary  law. 

Every  assembly  of  persons  represents  a  variety  of 
opinions.  The  character  of  the  assembly  does  not 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

change  the  question  of  the  differences  of  opinion. 
The  vast  increase  of  newspapers,  the  great  diffusion 
of  knowledge  by  reason  of  cheap  books  and  periodi- 
cals, the  popular  lecture  courses  throughout  the 
country — the  growing  numbers  of  popular  institu- 
tions of  learning  —  all  these  have  been  factors  in 
the  spread  of  general  information  among  the  peo- 
ple. It  has  led  to  wider  individual  knowledge  and 
a  broader,  sounder,  stronger  opinion  upon  matters 
of  current  moment.  An  assembly  may,  therefore, 
represent  as  many  varying  opinions  as  there  are 
minds,  notwithstanding  the  fact  of  its  being  called 
for  some  specific  purpose.  It  may  be  that  in  such 
an  assembly  there  are  many  who  may  agree  touch- 
ing the  main  and  fundamental  principles,  but  in 
the  details  of  arrangement  and  of  execution  the 
opinions  vary.  By  a  comparison  of  opinions,  by  a 
discussion  of  the  real  m&rits  of  the  proposition  be- 
fore the  assembly,  the  divergence  of  opinions  be- 
comes lessened  and  the  conclusion  finally  obtained 
represents  in  the  main  the  opinion  of  the  largest  num- 
ber composing  the  assembly. 

That  is  to  say,  every  assembly  possesses  at  least 
two  sides  or  parties  —  those  who  agree  upon  some  line 
of  action  and  those  who  disagree.  One  or  the  other 
is  numerically  the  stronger.  To  preserve  the  will  of 
the  stronger  and  give  it  effect,  and  at  the  same  time 
protect  the  rights  of  the  weaker,  is  a  very  important 
function.  Any  system  by  which  this  may  be  accom- 
plished has  come  to  be  known  as  Parliamentary  Law. 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  449 

It  may  be  broadly  stated  that  we  are  a  nation  of 
popular  assemblages.  The  town  meeting,  so  com- 
mon in  the  New  England  States,  is  an  assembly  of 
the  vicinage.  The  increasing  number  of  societies  of 
a  secret  or  social  nature  is  silent  testimony  of  this 
almost  national  characteristic. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  nation,  the  practice  was  a 
perfect  copy  of  that  which  obtained  in  the  English 
Parliament ;  and  necessarily  so,  when  one  remembers 
that  before  the  separation  from  the  mother  country 
the  English  system  was  the  only  one  that  could  be 
recognized  as  legal.  The  legislative  bodies  of  the 
colonies  were  copies  of  the  Parliament  of  England 
and  must,  therefore,  perform  their  work  in  a  similar 
manner.  When,  however,  the  separation  took  place 
and  the  nation  became  free  and  independent,  the 
need  of  reform  became  apparent.  Cumbrous  methods 
of  procedure  were  dropped  for  better  and  safer 
methods  and  thus  our  present  system  came  to  be 
developed  and  established. 

The  foundation  of  the  system  lies  in  precedents  that 
because  of  usage  have  come  to  be  regarded  as  having 
the  authority  of  law.  In  many  cases  the.  system  has 
reached  its  present  stage  by  reason  of  the  silent  ac- 
quiescence of  those  interested.  Whatever  has  ob- 
tained as  a  means  of  accomplishing  a  result  is  often 
regarded  as  equally  valuable  at  any  future  time. 

In  general,  it  may  be  stated  that  for  the  purpose 
of  guidance,  the  practice  of  the  highest  legislative 
body  of  any  country  or  State  is  the  one  that  is  gen- 


45°   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

erally  accepted.  Thus,  when  a  political  convention 
assembles  it  is  customary  for  the  convention  to  adopt 
that  system  which  is  in  vogue  in  the  State  Legisla- 
ture, the  differences  between  the  practice  of  any 
two  States  of  the  United  States  being  merely  one  of 
arrangement  rather  than  of  principle. 

Mr.  Thomas  Jefferson's  manual  is  the  first  attempt 
to  form  the  practice  that  obtained  in  his  time  into  a 
definite  code ;  and  while  much  that  he  compiled  and 
codified  is  yet  retained,  the  disputed  points  of  his 
system  have  become  now  settled  and  fixed  rules. 

There  are  still  points  of  difference,  and  it  is  the 
purpose  of  this  article  to  give  only  that  which  by 
usage  and  consent  has  become  the  generally  accepted 
practice. 

That  any  assembly  may  change  its  method  of  pro- 
cedure' and  adopt  any  system  which  in  the  judgment 
of  those  interested  shall  the  better  represent  the  end 
to  be  achieved,  is  the  well-known  rule  of  parliamen- 
tary practice.  This  practice  obtains  in  all  the  legis- 
lative bodies  in  this  country  where,  by  reason  of  ex- 
isting conditions,  the  will  of  the  majority  is  defeated. 
In  such  cases  new  rules  are  made  and  become  a  dis- 
tinctive part  of  that  special  system  which  obtains  in 
that  body.  Thus,  the  cloture  rule  of  the  English 
Parliament  defeated  the  methods  of  those  who  would 
obstruct  legislation  in  order  to  coerce  the  majority  to 
do  whatever  a  minority  demanded. 

These  assemblies  must  be  conducted  with  due  re 
gard  to  order  and  dignity.  Nor  is  this  less  true  in  a 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  451 

business  sense.  Banks,  railroad,  insurance  and  in- 
dustrial companies  have  their  boards  of  directors,  and 
they  are  required  by  law  to  transact  their  business  with 
due  regard  to  the  requirements  of  what  has  come  to 
be  understood  as  parliamentary  law. 

Churches,  eleemosynary  institutions,  societies  of  a 
philanthropic,  educational  and  social  character  are 
conducted,  so  far  as  the  practical  business  of  these 
organizations  is  concerned,  with  due  regard  to  some 
parliamentary  procedure. 

The  highest  type  of  these  assemblages  using  a 
parliamentary  practice  is  to  be  found  in  those  which, 
composed  of  representatives  of  the  people,  have  the 
power  to  make  laws  for  the  comfort,  safety  and  per- 
petuity of  the  nation. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  this  knowledge  is  no 
mean  possession  and,  in  fact,  is  to  be  regarded  as  a 
very  necessary  part  of  one's  general  information. 

THE  ORIGIN. 

The  origin  of  parliamentary  law  is  to  be  found  in 
that  period  of  English  history  which  marks  the  tri- 
umph of  the  people  against  the  arbitrary  power  of  the 
King.  It  is  not  a  series  of  rules  which  have  come 
into  existence  by  one  supreme  act  of  a  people.  It  is 
the  outgrowth  of  many  years  of  persistent  effort. 
Since  the  days  of  King  John  of  England  the  system 
has  been  growing.  It  is  not  claimed  to  be  perfect 
The  only  claim  is  that,  just  now,  it  best  represents 


45 2   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  highest   interests  of  the  people  than  any  other 
system. 

What,  in  this  country,  we  regard  as  parliamentary 
law  differs  greatly  from  the  system  now  in  use  in  the 
Parliament  of  England.  There  are,  of  course,  lines 
of  agreement,  but  the  divergence  is  so  sufficiently 
marked  that  we  may  claim  for  our  system  the  dis- 
tinctive title  of  the  American  parliamentary  practice. 

KINDS  OF  ASSEMBLIES. 

It  will  be  seen  that  all  assemblies  meet  under  some 
general  understanding,  that  what  has  come  to  be 
known  as  general  parliamentary  law  shall  be  the 
governing  rules  of  the  assembly.  No  assembly  can 
possibly  arrive  at  its  conclusion  without  tacitly  accept- 
ing this  as  the  fundamental  principle  on  which  to  pro- 
ceed. The  creation  of  any  special  system  of  procedure 
cannot  proceed  unless  there  be  this  understanding. 
Thus,  if  an  assembly  shall  come  together,  there  is  a 
form  of  organization  which  the  precedent  of  former 
assemblies  gives  the  authority  for  such  organization. 
When,  by  reason  of  the  organization  under  such  a 
tacit  agreement  the  assembly  shall  be  ready  for  busi- 
ness, it  may  then  proceed  to  create  such  a  system  as 
shall  properly  conserve  the  ends  to  be  met. 

This  general  system  by  which  organizations  con- 
duct their  business  is,  therefore,  of  highest  value 
to  us. 

That  assemblies  differ  in  their  characteristics 
and  require  differences  of  organization  is  a  fact  that 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  453 

can  be  readily  appreciated.  The  simpler  sort  of  an 
organization  is  sufficient  for  many  demands,  while  in 
other  cases  a  more  complicated  system  is  imperative, 
and  of  absolute  necessity. 

Assemblies  may  be  of  two  kinds.  Those  which 
exist  by  virtue  of  law,  and  those  which  are  purely 
voluntary  in  their  character. 

Of  the  first  sort,  all  legislative*  assemblies,  councils 
for  the  government  of  municipalities  and  conven- 
tions for  the  creation  or  amendment  of  constitutions 
are  examples.  These  assemblies  have  definite  pur- 
poses and  its  members  are  there  by  virtue  of  law. 

Other  assemblies,  such  as  political  conventions, 
existing  under  the  sanction  of  law  may  be  classified 
as  of  the  first  sort,  since  its  members  have  a  right  of 
membership  under  authority  granted  by  a  voluntary 
assembly  of  quasi  legal  authority. 

All  other  assemblies  wherein  a  general  invitation 
to  those  interested  is  all  that  is  needed  to  create  it, 
may  be  called  voluntary  assemblies.  Of  this  sort 
the  political  mass  meetings,  party  caucuses  and 
meetings  to  form  associations  are  examples. 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  various  assemblies 
require  varying  methods  of  organization.  When 
there  is  no  question  as  to  what  constitutes  a  member, 
the  organization  can  be  very  simply  effected.  Thus 
where  an  assembly  exists  by  invitation  of  those  in- 
terested in  some  given  object,  the  organization  does 
not  require  any  great  elaboration. 

In  such  bodies,  however,  where  the  membership  is 


454   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

settled  by  law,  there  may  be  many  present  whose 
right  to  participate  in  the  deliberations  may  be  dis- 
puted. It  is,  of  course,  necessary  that  this  question 
shall  be  settled  promptly  and  with  due  regard  to  the 
equities  in  the  case.  Some  organization,  however, 
is  necessary  to  effect  this  purpose  and  some  body 
must  preside  in  order  that  an  organization  of  some 
kind  may  be  effected. 

In  this  country,  this  is  effected  in  the  United 
States  House  of  Representatives  by  the  Clerk  of  the 
preceding  session,  who  calls  the  roll  of  members  from 
a  list  made  up  of  those  whose  certificates  of  mem- 
bership have  been  granted  by  the  competent  author- 
ity. This  practice  obtains  generally  in  all  the  lower 
bodies  of  legislation  thoughout  the  United  States, 
the  Clerk  presiding  until  The  Speaker  shall  have  been 
elected. 

In  the  upper  houses  of  legislation,  the  presiding 
officer  is  named  by  law  and  he  performes  the  duties 
of  his  office  irrespective  of  the  wishes  of  the  per- 
sons composing  the  body. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  those  assemblies  which  are 
created  under  the  sanction  of  law  and  which  have 
a  definite  membership,  a  different  system  must  be 
pursued.  In  such  assemblies,  it  is  customary  that 
the  duty  of  calling  the  body  together' shall  be  per- 
formed by  a  member  of  the  Committee  to  whose  care 
has  been  committed  the  general  management  of  the 
party's  affairs.  Thus  all  political  conventions  are  so 
organized. 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW.  455 

THE  QUORUM. 

Any  assembly  which  is  created  by  a  general  invita- 
tion to  those  interested  in  some  subject  to  attend  at  a 
certain  time  and  place  transacts  its  business  whenever, 
in  the  opinion  of  those  interested,  there  are  enough 
present  to  effect  the  object  sought.  All  present  have 
an  equal  share  in  the  deliberation  and  when  the  or- 
ganization is  effected  all  except  the  presiding  officer, 
the  secretary,  and  one  other  person  might  retire. 
Yet  for  the  purpose  of  the  invitation  the  assembly 
would  be  perfect. 

In  such  assemblies  no  specified  number  is  required 
to  do  business.  I  n  assemblies  of  a  different  character, 
such,  for  instance,  as  legislative  bodies,  boards  of 
directors,  social  organizations,. etc.,  a  certain  number 
is  required  to  be  present  before  the  work  of  the  body 
shall  proceed.  This  special  number  present  is  called 
a  quorum. 

The  reason  for  such  a  provision  is  very  obvious. 
Without  it  a  few  persons  might  cause  action  which 
would  be  harmful  to  the  organization  or  to  the  con- 
stituency represented.  The  quorum  is  not  a  definite 
number.  Some  assemblies  require  a  fixed  number. 
Others  a  majority  of  those  who  have  right  to  partici- 
pate in  the  deliberation. 

When  no  provision  is  made  for  a  quorum,  those 
present  constitute  the  quorum.  It  may  be  stated 
generally  that  in  those  bodies  which  derive  their  exist- 
ence by  reason  of  legal  enactments,  a  majority  con- 
stitutes a  quorum. 


456   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Without  the  presence  of  a  quorum  all  business 
ceases.  It  is  the  presiding  officer's  duty  to  see  that 
a  quorum  is  present  before  any  business  shall  be  done. 
But  it  does  not  follow  that  all  must  assist  in  the  tran- 
saction of  the  business  before  the  body.  Those  who 
are  silent  are  supposed  to  give  tacit  consent  to  what 
is  being  accomplished.  The  presumption  of  the 
presence  of  a  quorum  is  regarded  as  good  parlia- 
mentary law  until  the  opposite  is  shown  to  be  true. 

The  physical  presence  of  a  sufficient  number  to 
perform  the  business  in  hand  is  all  that  a  quorum 
demands.  If  this  business  be  voting  upon  a  proposi- 
tion, then  it  is  not  the  result  of  the  vote  which  shall 
show  the  quorum,  but  the  fact  that  when  such  vote  is 
announced  the  presiding  officer  is  aware  that  there 
were  others  present  who  though  not  voting  were  still 
physically  present.  Thus,  if  on  division  of  a  question, 
the  vote  should  show  35  in  favor  and  25  opposed,  the 
total  number  voting  would  be  60.  If  this  were  a 
quorum,  the  action  would  be  final.  If,  however,  65 
were  the  quorum  there  would  be  no  action  unless  the 
presiding  officer  knew  there  were  others  present 
who  had  not  voted.  In  such  an  event,  the  general 
concensus  of  opinion  is  that  he  has  the  power  to  add 
sufficient  to  make  the  quorum. 

"Silence  gives  consent"  is  the  maxim  upon  which 
this  action  is  based. 

While  this  is  true,  it  is  not  needful  that  during 
debate  a  quorum  shall  be  present.  The  business 
consists  in  definitely  recording  action.  Action  is 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  457 

where  an  opinion  is  promulgated  which  represents 
the  majority  of  all  present  who,  under  the  restriction 
of  the  quorum,  have  a  right  to  do  business.  Any 
other  duty  in  which  a  deliberative  body  is  engaged 
is  preparatory  to  action,  is  not  business  and  may  be 
performed  without  reference  to  the  quorum. 

The  practice  here  in  this  country  generally  is  along 
this  line.  In  England,  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
the  absence  of  a  quorum  when  called  to  the  speaker's 
attention  suspends  all  business  of  all  sorts  whether 
debating  or  voting  until  the  quorum  is  again  obtained. 

The  only  binding  act  which  less  than  a  quorum  can 
perform  is  that  of  adjournment.  No  argument  is 
needed  to  show  the  force  of  this  last  statement.  A 
deliberative  body  could  never  adjourn  if  by  some 
casualty  sufficient  of  its  members  were  unable  to  be 
present  and  complete  a  quorum.  So  that  it  will  be 
seen  that  it  is  a  very  salutary  provision  which  gives 
to  less  than  a  quorum  the  right  of  adjournment. 
This  adjournment  may  be  until  the  next  stated  time 
of  meeting  or  it  may  be  to  any  such  prior  time  as 
those  present  may  designate.  If,  however,  it  be 
simply  to  adjourn,  then  the  adjournment  is  until  the 
next  stated  time  of  meeting. 

ORGANIZATION. 

In  order  that  an  assembly  may  do  business  some 
sort  of  an  organization  is  needful.  It  has  been 
created  for  some  definite  purpose  and  in  proportion 
to  the  magnitude  of  the  interests  involved  the 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

character  of  the  organization  is  determined.  It  must 
record  its  opinions  and  transact  its  business  readily 
and  in  order.  In  the  accomplishment  of  this  pur- 
pose, a  simple  organization  may  be  all  that  is  required. 

Mass  meetings  and  all  public  gatherings,  having 
for  their  object  the  formation  of  some  sort  of  a 
society,  usually  effect  this  simple  organization. 

For  the  purpose  of  making  such  an  organization 
clear,  we  will  assume  that  a  few  persons  have  issued 
an  invitation  for  a  public  meeting  in  behalf  of  some 
needed  reforms  in  the  conduct  of  public  affairs. 
Such  invitation  should  state  the  purpose  of  such 
meeting,  the  time  and  place,  contain  an  invitation  to 
all  interested  to  be  present  and  should  be  signed  by 
those  who  desire  the  meeting. 

This  invitation  has  met  with  a  generous  response 
and  at  the  appointed  time  and  place  the  interested 
citizens  have  come  together.  It  is  customary  for 
one  of  the  persons  who  has  signed  the  invitation  to 
step  to  such  a  place  where  he  may  command  the  at- 
tention of  all  present  and,  calling  for  order,  state 
briefly  the  object  for  which  the  meeting  has  been 
called,  or  he  may  simply  read  the  invitation. 

He  then  asks  for  nominations  for  chairman,  or  he 
may  suggest  that  some  person  present  act  as  chair- 
man. Under  all  ordinary  circumstances  a  nomina- 
tion is  made  or  the  suggestion  of  the  speaker  may 
be  adopted.  Sometimes,  however,  a  formal  motion 
is  made  in  which  a  person's  name  may  be  nominated 
and  which  may  be  followed  by  other  nominations. 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  459 

The  person  presiding  presents  the  first  name  and  each 
successive  name  until  some  one  shall  receive  the 
assent  of  a  majority  present.  That  person,  so  desig- 
nated, comes  forward,  and  facing  those  present,  ex- 
presses his  thanks  for  the  honor  conferred  and  asks 
the  pleasure  of  the  assembly.  A  secretary  may 
then  be  nominated  and  is  elected  in  the  same  form 
as  the  presiding  officer.  This  is  all  that  is  needed 
to  effect  an  organization  for  such  an  assembly.  In 
practice  it  is  customary  to  add  vice-presidents,  one 
or  more,  and  also  secretaries.  These  are  marks  of 
honor,  and  are  useful  to  add  to  the  interest  in  the 
movement  about  to  be  initiated.  For  all  assemblies 
of  a  purely  voluntary  character,  this  is  all  the  organi- 
zation that  is  needed  to  effect  the  purpose  designed. 
Such  an  organization  as  hereinbefore  described  is 
suitable,  as  has  been  intimated,  for  all  assemblies  in 
which  there  is  no  requirement  as  to  membership. 
Such  as  we  have  seen  are  not  the  only  kind  of 
assemblages.  There  are  those  whose  membership  is 
restricted  by  law  and  whose  members  must  be  there 
by  reason  of  certain  certificates  of  election.  It  will 
follow  that  some  sort  of  an  organization  is  needful 
which  shall  determine  whether  these  certificates  rest 
upon  a  proper  foundation.  When  that  question 
shall  have  been  settled,  an  organization  may  then  be 
effected  which  shall  be  for  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness. This  first  organization  is  known  as  the  tem- 
porary organization,  which,  having  fulfilled  its  pur- 
pose is  succeeded  by  the  permanent  organization. 


460  A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

The  temporary  organization  is  effected  in  the  same 
manner  as  an  organization  of  a  voluntary  assembly. 
Its  first  business  is  the  examination  of  the  certificates 
which  give  authority  for  those  who  possess  them  to 
participate  in  the  proceedings.  These  certificates 
are  known  as  credentials.  In  all  legislative  bodies 
as  well  as  in  all  political  conventions,  this  is  done  by 
what  is  called  the  Committee  on  Credentials.  After 
this  committee  has  examined  the  certificates  of  elec- 
tion, it  reports  to  the  assembly,  which  report  having 
been  adopted,  the  permanent  organization  is  ready 
to  be  proceeded  with. 

It  should  be  remarked  in  passing  that  in  the  case 
of  legislative  bodies,  the  roll  is  called  from  a  list  pre- 
pared by  the  clerk  of  the  preceding  legislative  body, 
and  the  question  of  membership  in  case  of  contests 
is  determined  by  a  Committee  of  Elections  after  the 
body  has  been  fully  organized. 

In  all  other  assemblies  which  meet  from  year  to 
year  or  oftener,  the  person  who  may  hold  over,  or,  as 
in  the  case  of  a  state,  county  or  town  convention, 
some  member  of  a  committee  is  charged  with  the 
duty  of  effecting  the  temporary  organization. 

Having  thus  settled  the  question  of  those  who  are 
entitled  to  participate  in  the  proceedings  of  the  as- 
sembly, a  permanent  organization  is  then  effected. 
Often  the  temporary  organization  is  made  perma- 
nent, or  a  committee  on  permanent  organization 
which,  having  been  appointed  at  the  same  time  as 
that  on  credentials,  may  then  make  a  report  in  which 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  461 

the  names  of  those  who  are  to  become  the  officers 
are  clearly  stated,  the  adoption  of  this  report  elect- 
ing the  officers  of  the  permanent  organization. 

A  description  of  the  organization  of  the  Assembly 
of  the  State  of  New  York  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
organization  of  legislative  bodies. 

The  clerk  of  the  preceding  Assembly  calls  to  order 
those  present  who  have  received  certificates  of  election 
from  the  Board  of  Canvassers  of  the  several  counties 
from  which  they  have  been  elected.  From  a  list 
previously  prepared,  from  the  returns  in  the  Secre- 
tary of  State's  office,  he  calls  the  names  of  the  mem- 
bers, a  half  dozen  at  a  time,  who  then  have  the  oath 
of  office  administered  to  them  by  the  Secretary  of 
State,  or  his  deputy.  Having  taken  the  oath,  each 
member  signs  a  copy  of  the  same  and  is  then  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Assembly.  After  all  have  taken  the  oath 
of  office,  the  clerk  then  states  that  nominations  are 
in  order  for  the  presiding  officer,  whose  title  is  The 
Speaker. 

It  is  the  custom  for  each  political  party  represented 
to- present  the  name  of  its  representative,  and  when 
all  the  nominations  have  been  made,  the  clerk  calls 
the  roll,  whereat  each  member  rises  and  states  his 
choice.  The  person  receiving  the  majority  is  then 
declared  to  be  The  Speaker  by  the  clerk.  A  com- 
mittee is  appointed  to  conduct  The  Speaker  to  his 
place.  A  speech  of  thanks  is  then  delivered  by  the 
new  presiding  officer  and  the  further  pleasure  of  the 
assembly  is  requested.  The  duties  of  the  clerk  are 


462   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

ended  the  moment  the  speaker  is  declared  elected. 
Thereupon  nominations  for  clerk  are  made  and  the 
election  is  proceeded  with,  in  the  same  manner  as  for 
speaker.  The  organization  is  thus  effected  and, 
except  for  the  allotting  of  seats  to  the  members,  the 
Assembly  is  ready  for  the  transaction  of  public  busi- 
ness. 

In  the  case  of  the  upper  house  of  legislation,  the 
presiding  officer  is  a  constitutional  officer  and  his 
selection  is  made  directly  by  the  people  when  they 
elect  the  lieutenant-governor,  he  being  always,  unless 
performing  the  duties  of  governor,  the  presiding 
officer  of  the  Senate. 

The  Senate  always  elects  a  president  pro  tern,  and 
a  clerk,  who  is  chosen  in  like  manner  to  that  pursued 
in  the  lower  house. 

It  is  always  the  custom  for  each  house  of  legisla- 
tion to  notify  the  other  of  its  organization  by  a  com- 
mittee, and  for  a  joint  committee  to  notify  the 
Governor  that  the  Legislature  is  ready  for  public 
business,  or  for  any  communication  which  he  may 
desire  to  make. 

OFFICERS. 

The  Presiding  Officer. 

It  is  manifest  that  the  first  officer  to  be  chosen  is 
the  one  who  shall  preside.  He  is  called  by  various 
titles.  In  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  and  of 
the  various  States  he  is  called  "Mr.  President."  In 
House  of  Representatives  and  in  the  lower  houses 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.'  463 

of  legislation,  he  is  called  "  The  Speaker."  In  all 
voluntary  assemblies  he  is  called,  either  "  Mr.  Presi- 
dent," or  "Mr.  Chairman."  In  religious  bodies  he 
is  sometimes  called  "  Mr.  Moderator."  The  dis- 
tinction between  the  use  of  the  words  chairman  and 
president  seems  to  be,  that  the  one  presiding  over 
a  committee  of  a  body  shall  be  called,  "  Mr.  Chair- 
man," while  the  presiding  officer  of  the  body  itself 
shall  be  called,  "  Mr.  President." 

The  success  of  an  assembly  depends  often  upon 
the  presiding  officer.  He  is  the  official  mouth-piece 
of  the  assembly  and  is  the  one  by  whom  the  business 
can  be  rapidly  as  well  as  properly  conducted.  In 
order  to  this  end,  he  should  be  a  person  of  some  per- 
sonal dignity,  of  decision,  of  sound  sense,  clear 
strong  voice  and  of  great  good  nature.  He  should 
possess  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  business  which 
occasions  the  meeting  over  which  he  presides,  and 
know  when  the  rigid  enforcement  of  the  rules  is 
needful.  He  should  possess  a  knowledge  of  human 
nature  and  be  able  to  judge  what  action  best  advances 
the  business  in  hand. 

It  has  become  almost  an  invariable  rule  that  a 
poor  presiding  officer  may  render  the  most  enlight- 
ened assembly  a  most  turbulent  body. 

It  is  the  presiding  officer  who  becomes,  by  reason 
of  his  office,  the  instrument  of  the  will  of  the  body 
over  which  he  presides. 

The  finest  exhibition  of  this  fact  is  to  be  found  in 
English  history.  Charles  I.  requested  the  Speaker  of 


464   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  House  of  Commons  to  point  out  certain  per- 
sons whom  he  desired  to  apprehend.  The  Speaker 
replied  "  Sire,  I  have  eyes  and  ears  to  see  and  hear 
only  what  this  House  directs  me." 

While  the  presiding  officer  may  have  any  powers 
which  the  body  over  which  he  presides  may  direct 
him  to  perform,  the  following  may  represent,  in 
general,  his  duties: 

I.   To  call  the  assembly  to  order  at  the  time 
and  place  designated  for  that  purpose. 

II.  To  determine  if  a  quorum  be  present. 

III.  To  cause  the  journal  of  the  previous  meet- 
ing to  be  read. 

IV.  To  present  to  the   meeting  the  business  in 
the  order  provided  by  the  rules. 

V.  To  present  all  business  which  shall  arise  by 
reason  of  a  motion. 

VI.   To  announce,  or  cause  to  be  announced,  the 
result  of  such  business. 

VII.  To- decide  all  questions  of  order. 
VIII.   In   case   of   an   appeal  from  his  decision  to 
submit  the  same  to  the  assembly. 

IX.   To  preserve  order  and  enforce  the  rules. 

X.  To  see  that  all  communications  are  properly 
placed  before  the  assembly. 

XI.  To   give   authority  to  all  orders  of  the  as- 
sembly by  his  signature. 

XII.  In  his  absence  from  the  chair  to  name  a 
person  who  shall  preside;  and,  finally,  to  perform 
whatever  shall  represent  the  will  of  the  assembly. 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  465 

These  are  the  specific  duties  of  the  presiding  offi- 
cer. As  the  executive  head,  there  may  come  duties 
which  are  not  provided  for  by  the  rules,  or  there  may 
inquiries  be  made  which  are  needful  to  exhibit 
the  true  inwardness  of  some  proposed  business. 
These  inquiries  are  known  *& parlimentary  inquiries. 
Sometimes  they  are  denominated  points  of  informa- 
tion.. They  are  allowable  and  the  presiding  officer 
has  sole  option  whether  to  reply  or  not.  Generally, 
he  may  refrain  from  a  reply  when  it  is  apparent  that 
such  reply  would  improperly  influence  the  decision  of 
some  question  at  issue.  In  that  event  he  might  pre- 
fer argument  upon  the  same. 

The  presiding  officer  represents  the  dignity  of  the 
body  of  which  he  is  the  executive  head.  He  has 
a  right  to  the  highest  respect,  not  because  of  the 
person,  but  of  the  office.  He  is  under  obligation 
because  of  that  relation,  to  rise  when  stating  a  motion 
or  addressing  the  assembly.  Otherwise  his  position 
may  be  any  thing  he  may  choose  to  make  it,  so  long  as 
it  comports  with  the  dignity  of  his  office. 

He  is  subject  to  removal  for  cause,  when  elected 
for  a  specified  time  and  may  be  removed  at  any 
time  when  elected  during  the  pleasure  of  the 
house. 

It  may  be  here  stated  that  he  has  the  right,  when 
a  member  of  the  assembly,  to  participate  in  the  de- 
bate, and  is  supposed  to  be  impartial  in  his  ruling, 
exercising  only  such  salutary  influence  upon  the  body 
discussing  a  question  as  shall  bring  about  the  highest 
30 


466   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

degree  of  decorum.  He  is  the  sole  judge  of  what 
constitutes  order  and  may  at  any  time  exercise  this 
prerogative.  His  duty  is  to  confine  the  member  speak- 
ing to  the  question  at  issue.  At  all  times  he  has  the 
right  to  call  a  substitute  to  the  chair,  and  he  may  him- 
self take  part  in  the  debate  under  such  circumstances. 
He  may  while  presiding  give  in  extenso  his  reasons 
for  a  decision  on  a  point  of  order,  but  beyond  that 
has  no  right  to  debate  a  question  while  in  the  chair. 

THE  SECRETARY. 

The  secretary  or  clerk  is  the  second  officer  of  an 
assembly  whose  presence  is  absolutely  necessary  in 
the  conduct  of  business.  He  is  sometimes  called 
"  the  recorder"  He  is  elected  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  presiding  officer.  In  his  absence,  no  matter 
how  temporary,  a  substitute  should  be  chosen  so 
that  the  business  of  the  assembly  may  proceed. 

He  should  be  a  careful,  attentive  and  judicious 
person,  with  capacity  to  read  well  and  possess  some 
knowledge  of  parliamentary  law.  He  should  possess 
some  knowledge  of  composition,  so  that  the  record 
shall  clearly  represent  the  business  accomplished  by 
the  assembly.  In  general  his  duties  may  be  stated 
as  follows  : 

I.  To  read   all  papers  which  may  be  required  by 
the  presiding  officer,  the  assembly,  or  the  rules. 
II.  To  keep  and  preserve  a  list  of  members. 

III.  To  record  whatever  is  actually  done  by  the 
assembly,  but  not  necessarily  what  is  said. 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  467 

IV.  To  preserve  a  record  of  all  votes  when  the 
same  has  been  visibly  performed. 

V.  To  preserve  on  file  all  communications  which, 
having  been  received  by  the  assembly,  have  become 
a  part  of  the  proceedings. 

VI.  To  authenticate,  by  his  signature,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  presiding  officer,  all  orders  of  the 
assembly. 

His  relations  to  the  assembly  require  that  he  shall 
conduct  himself  with  dignity,  and  that  when  reading 
any  paper,  or  othewise  performing  any  duty  in  which 
he  shall  be  giving  desired  information,  shall  stand. 

The  widest  latitude  is  permitted  the  recording 
officer  in  the  work  of  making  a  record  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  assembly.  It  has  come  to  be  under- 
stood that  not  merely  what  is  passed  upon  and  thus 
become  the  dictum  of  the  assembly,  shall  enter  in 
the  record ;  but  whatever  may  add  to  making  the 
record  an  account  of  all  that  was  said  or  done.  This 
will  apply  to  all  assemblies  wherein  a  constituency 
desires  the  fullest  information  of  what  was  said  as 
well  as  done.  The  proceedings  of  religious  convoca- 
tions thus  give  very  full  reports  covering  not  only 
the  action,  but  all  the  steps  that  lead  up  to  it. 

The  strict  rule  is,  however,  that  only  that  which  is 
actually  done  shall  constitute  the  record.  This  prac- 
tice obtains  in  all  deliberative  bodies  having  their 
existence  by  reason  of  legal  enactments. 

The  right  of  the  clerk  to  participate  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  assembly  of  which  he  is  a  duly  con- 


468   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

stituted  member  is  not  abridged.  His  privileges  and 
rights  are  not  curtailed  by  his  acceptance  of  office, 
except  so  far  as  the  proper  performance  of  his  duties 
shall  affect  them.  He  is  the  servant  of  all  for  a 
specific  purpose  and  that  is  paramount  to  all  other 
considerations.  His  duty  as  clerk  he  must  perform 
or  resign. 

MEMBERS. 

A  member  of  an  assembly  is  subject  to  cer- 
tain requirements.  He  is  upon  an  equal  footing 
with  every  other  member  present,  and  has  a  right  to 
the  largest  degree  of  liberty  in  presenting  subjects  for 
consideration.  Upon  all  subjects  presented  he  has  a 
right  to  debate.  The  general  rule  of  all  assemblies 
is  that  all  members  are  free  to  do  as  they  will  so  long 
as  they  do  not  trespass  on  the  freedom  of  others. 
No  member  has  a  right  to  interrupt  another  when 
speaking  unless  to  correct  what  he  believes  to  have 
been  a  violation  of  order.  Forbearance  and  courtesy 
are  the  basic  principles  which  should  control  in  all 
cases. 

Decorum  and  propriety  are  as  needful  when  not 
in  debate  as  when  debate  is  in  progress.  So  that  all 
things  which  are  not  the  mark  of  a  gentleman  are 
foreign  to  any  deliberative  body. 

To  state  the  duties  of  a  member  would  be  a  diffi- 
cult task,  but  in  the  main  they  are  : 

I.  Not  to  interrupt  a  member  when  speaking 
without  permission  frcm  him. 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  469 

II.  To   rise  when  addressing  the  chair  and  to 
remain  standing   until   recognized  by  the   presiding 
officer. 

III.  To  perform  no  ungentlemanly  acts. 

IV.  To  refrain  from  passing  between  the  presid- 
ing officer  and  a  member  who. may  be  speaking. 

V.  To  maintain  order  himself  and  refrain  from 
conversation. 

VI.  To  avoid  the  use  of  improper  or  intempe- 
rate language  when  speaking. 

VII.  To  appeal  from  the  presiding  officer's  de- 
cision when  in  his  judgment  the  same  does  not 
harmonize  with  justice  to  himself. 

VIII.  To  avoid  all  conduct  that  shall  tend  to 
hamper  or  obstruct  the  proceedings  of  the  body, 

IX.  Lastly,  So  to  conduct  himself  that  he  shall 
not  interfere  with  the  rights  and  privileges  of  any 
or  all  present. 

These  are  some  of  the  rights  and  duties  of  the 
members  of  any  deliberative  assembly. 

It  will  surely  be  seen  that  the  good  order  of  an 
assembly  depends  on  the  measure  of  forbearance 
which  one  member  may  have  toward  the  other.  The 
value  of  any  deliberative  body's  action  depends  much 
on  how  orderly  the  proceedings  have  been  conduct- 
ed. In  a  state  of  disorder  and  inattention  improper 
schemes  have  very  often  been  acted  upon  and  strifes 
and  jealousies  have  been  aroused  which  have  never 
been  allayed.  The  highest  efficiency  of  any  assem- 
bly is  best  attained  where  decorum  rules. 


47O    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

THE  TRANSACTION  OF  BUSINESS. 

All  deliberative  bodies  of  whatever  nature  are 
created  for  some  purpose.  The  accomplishment  of 
this  purpose  is  its  business.  With  an  organization  per- 
fected it  is  prepared  at  once  to  proceed  with  the  bus- 
ness  which  may  have  been  the  cause  of  its  creation. 
That  this  business  may  be  presented  in  proper  order 
is  the  special  province  of  general  parliamentary 
practice. 

It  is  the  commonly  accepted  practice  that  whatever 
is  desired  for  discussion  in  any  deliberative  assembly 
shall  be  presented  in  at  least  one  of  these  forms : 
I.     By  a  formal  motion. 
II.      By  a  communication. 

III.     By  a  petition. 

These  three  methods  take  in  all  the  ways  by  which 
those  who  may  be  members,  or  who  may  be  its  servants, 
or  who  may  have  no  relation  to  the  assembly  whatever 
can  with  due  regard  to  the  fitness  of  things  bring  mat- 
ters of  interest  and  importance  to  the  attention  of  the 
assembly. 

To  show  this  more  fully,  let  us  suppose  that  Mr. 
A.  believes  that  a  certain  change  in  an  established 
procedure  will  be  of  benefit  to  his  community  ;  he 
presents  the  matter  in  a  formal  motion.  If  the  officer 
of  a  State  government  desires  to  inform  the  Legisla- 
ture of  certain  needed  reforms  in  the  administration 
of  the  affairs  of  his  office,  he  can  do  that  by  a  formal 
communication  in  which  is  outlined  the  condition  of 
affairs  as  they  exist,  why  they  are  detrimental  and 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  471 

how  they  may  be  remedied.  Again,  should  any  com- 
pany of  citizens  living  in  a  certain  portion  of  a  city 
desire  a  new  street  to  be  cut  through  for  their  con- 
venience, a  petition  to  the  proper  local  authorities 
would  be  the  means  by  which  the  matter  could  be 
brought  to  their  attention. 

All  business,  however,  of  every  nature,  in  what- 
ever manner  it  may  have  been  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  assemby,  is  not  properly  in  its  possession 
until  the  same  shall  have  been  formally  presented  in 
a  motion.  When  restated  by  the  presiding  officer  it 
is  then  a  question.  If  finally  approved,  it  becomes 
either  a  resolution,  an  order,  or  an  act.  Now,  all  de- 
liberative bodies  with  a  distinct  membership,  are 
absolute  in  their  control  of  what  shall  be  presented. 
A  member  has  a  right,  by  motion,  to  present  any 
matter  for  discussion,  but  the  presiding  officer  need 
not  present  any  communication  that  does  not,  in  some 
way,  have  a  relation  by  reason  of  either  law  or  existing 
rules  to  the  body  over  which  he  presides.  The  peti- 
tioner can  only  gain  access  to  the  assembly's  ears  by 
means  of  some  member.  The  restriction  of  this 
creation  of  business  is  that  it  shall  only  proceed  from 
those  who,  by  reason  of  membership,  have  a  right 
to  present  matters  for  discussion.  Hence,  with  an 
organization  perfected,  the  assembly  is  ready  for  any 
business  which  the  members  may  seek  to  bring 
before  it. 

How  shall  business  be  created?  Let  us  suppose 
that  some  member  has  a  proposition  which  he  desires 


472   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

to  submit  to  the  assembly.  He  arises  in  his  place 
and,  addressing  the  presiding  officer,  calls  out,  "  Mr. 
President,"  or  whatever  title  the  presiding  officer 
may  have.  The  chair  then  recognizes  the  person 
thus  addressing  him  by  saying,  "  Mr.  -  -  has  the 
floor,"  or  he  may  curtail  his  recognition  by  simply 
mentioning  his  name.  In  legislative  bodies  the  name 
is  not  mentioned,  but  the  recognition  is  to  specify 
the  State,  county  or  district  which  the  rising  member 
may  represent.  The  person  so  recognized  is  said  to 
have  the  floor,  and  it  is  his  so  long  as  he  shall  pro- 
ceed in  order.  Having  now  possession  of  the  floor, 
he  proceeds  to  state  concisely  and  with  the  best  lan- 
guage, the  proposition  he  desires  to  bring  before  the 
assembly,  and  usually  precedes  his  remarks  by  say- 
ing, "  I  move  that,"  etc.  This  is  the  formal  motion 
and  must  be  put  in  writing  if  so  desired  by  either  the 
president  or  any  member.  This  is  but  the  formal 
notice  of  the  proposition.  A  second  and  further  act 
is  needed  before  it  is  completed.  Another  member 
of  the  assembly  must  arise  and,  after  obtaining  the 
floor,  say,  "I  second  the  motion."  So  far  as  the  act 
of  introduction  goes  that  is  complete.  The  presid- 
ing officer  is  now  required  to  rise  and  state  the  mo- 
tion, prefixing  it  with  the  words,  "  It  is  moved  and 
seconded  that,"  and  on  completion  of  statement  of 
the  subject-matter  of  the  motion,  he  then  adds,  "  Is 
there  anything  to  be  said  upon  the  question  ? "  The 
business  is  now  in  possession  of  the  assembly. 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  473 

It  is  sometimes  the  practice  to  mention  the  names 
of  the  mover  and  seconder. 

It  will  be  seen  that  several  steps  are  needed  before 
the  business  of  an  assembly  is  ready  for  action. 

I.   To  obtain   the  floor  by  being  recognized  by 
the  chair. 

II.  The  statement  of  the  motion  by  the  mover. 

III.  The  seconding  of  the  same  by  another  mem- 
ber. 

IV.  The  restatement  by  the  chair. 

Several  persons  may  desire  to  obtain  the  floor  at 
once  and  the  presiding  officer  must  decide  which  one 
shall  have  the  floor.  His  decision  is  seldom  dis- 
puted. He  may  decide  by  reason  of  several  things, 
but  generally  the  one  whom  he  sees  rise  first  is 
awarded  the  floor.  He  may  not  have  had  his  atten- 
tion directed  so  as  to  be  able  to  see  and  then  his 
decision  may  rest  on  the  first  voice  he  may  have 
heard.  When  he  shall  have  indicated  the  one  en. 
titled  to  the  floor,  all  others  are  to  be  seated  and 
there  remain  unless  the  one  to  whom  has  been 
accorded  the  floor  shall  be  out  of  order.  The  de- 
cision of  the  chair  in  assigning  the  floor  is  only  final 
by  courtesy  and  any  member  has  the  right  of  an 
appeal  from  this  decision.  In  other  words,  the  assem- 
bly has  the  power  to  give  the  floor  to  some  other 
person.  In  general,  as  stated,  the  indication  of  the 
chair  is  regarded  as  final ;  and  in  the  U.  S.  House  of 
Representatives  the  decision  of  the  speaker  is  final 
and  unquestioned.  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid 


474   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

on  the  application  of  the  principle  that  the  one  who 
is  in  order  shall  be  entitled  to  the  floor  in  preference 
to  one  who  is  out  of  order.  Hence  the  preference  for 
the  one  who  addresses  the  Chair  from  his  own  place. 

The  requirement  of  a  second  proceeds  on  the 
general  principle  that  if  the  mover  of  a  motion  is  the 
only  one  favorable  to  it,  it  is  not  worth  the  attention 
of  the  body.  It  is  the  custom  in  many  legislative 
bodies  to  require  no  second  to  the  ordinary  motions, 
the  use  of  the  second  being  waived  by  consent.  In 
all  deliberative  bodies  this  second  is  an  absolute 
requirement  and  is  the  natural  complement  of  the 
motion. 

The  restatement  by  the  Chair  is  the  concluding  act 
in  the  introduction  of  business.  It  cannot  be  de- 
bated, nor  can  any  statements  be  made  upon  it,  nor, 
indeed,  can  any  other  member  of  the  assembly  suggest 
any  other  business.  The  mover  may  make  certain 
changes  either  by  his  own  volition  or  by  reason  of  the 
suggestions  of  another.  Once  stated  by  the  Chair, 
it  has  passed  beyond  the  mover's  control  and  he  can 
only  change  it  by  consent  of  the  assembly  or  by  an 
amendment.  Before  the  formal  statement  by  the 
presiding  officer,  the  mover,  with  the  consent  of  the 
second,  may  withdraw  it.  After  such  statement  its 
fate  is  with  the  assembly.  This  is  the  strict  state- 
ment of  the  practice,  but  the  usages  in  many  places 
vary ;  so  that  in  some  cases  the  permission  to  with- 
draw a  motion  even  when  in  possession  of  the  assem- 
bly obtains. 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  475 

The  requisition  that  a  motion  be  in  writing  will  be 
seen  to  be  very  wise.  The  recording  officer  needs 
know  the  exact  phraseology  of  a  motion.  The  pre- 
siding officer  having  to  restate  it  is  required  to  state 
the  same  verbatim.  The  course  of  debate  may  de- 
mand the  re-reading  of  the  question  one  or  more 
times.  In  general,  the  motions  which  may  arise  that 
have  to  do  with  the  disposal  of  the  proposition  itself 
are  not  required  to  be  in  writing. 

The  proposition  is  now  before  the  assembly  and 
the  discussion  of  the  same  is  in  order.  It  may  be 
that  in  the  opinion  of  many  present  who  are  not  pre- 
pared either  to  vote  upon  or  discuss  the  question, 
the  time  is  inopportune  and  so  desire  its  defeat  or 
postponement.  There  are  certain  means  by  which 
this  purpose  may  be  effected. 

This  may  be  accomplished  in  the  following  ways: 

I.  By  raising  the  question  of  consideration. 
II.    Point  of  order. 

III.  To  lay  on  the  table. 

IV.  To  postpone  indefinitely. 

V.   To  postpone  to  a  certain  day. 
VI.  To  refer  to  a  committee  or  to  commit. 
VII.  The  previous  question. 
VIII.  To  adjourn. 

These  motions,  because  they  have  reference  to  the 
main  question,  as  original  motion  is  now  called,  are 
denominated  subsidary  motions  and  are  used  to  sup- 
press the  proposition  before  the  assembly  or  to  de- 
fer its  consideration. 


476    A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

THE  QUESTION  OF  CONSIDERATION. 
This  question  must  be  raised  immediately  after  the 
statement  of  the  motion  by  the  Chair.  The  mem- 
ber, so  desiring,  rises  in  his  place  and,  after  having 
been  accorded  the  floor,  says,  "  Mr.  President.  On 
that,  I  raise  the  question  of  consideration."  This 
raises,  at  once, 'the  question,  shall  the  assembly  de- 
bate the  question  ?  It  is  not  debatable,  for  there  is 
nothing  to  debate.  It  is  simply  whether  at  this  time 
it  is  wise  to  proceed  with  the  debate.  Those  who 
desire  thus  to  debate,  vote  favorable  to  the  question, 
for,  stripped  of  all  verbiage,  the  question  means,  shall 
we  debate  or  shall  we  not  ?  Those  who  do  not  so 
desire,  vote  against  the  question.  If  decided  in  the 
affirmative,  the  debate  proceeds.  If  in  the  negative, 
it  disposes  of  the  question  finally.  There  are  no  limi- 
tations to  the  use  of  this  motion,  except  that  it  can 
not  apply  to  amendments  to  the  main  question. 

THE  POINT  OF  ORDER. 

If  the  question  of  consideration,  be  not  raised  some 
member  may  arise  and  say  :  "  I  rise  to  a  point  of 
order,"  following  this  introduction  by  stating  that  the 
question  is  in  violation  of  certain  fixed  rules  of  the 
assembly.  If  the  Chair  shall  decide  that  this  point 
of  order  is  well  taken,  it  has  the  effect  to  defer  the 
consideration  of  the  question,  and,  so  far  as  the  busi- 
ness before  the  assembly  is  concerned,  it  is  as  if  there 
had  been  none  proposed.  These  two  methods  of 
procedure  differ  in  the  sense  that  the  first  is  decided 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  477 

by  the  assembly,  the  second  by  the  Chair,  subject  to 
an  appeal,  in  the  absence  of  which  the  action  is  as 
sumed  to  be  approved  by  the  assembly.  Both  of 
them  are  to  be  raised  immediately  .after  the  statement 
of  the  motion  by  the  Chair  and  before  debate  shall 
have  begun. 

When  debate  shall  have  been  begun  the  method 
of  disposing  of  the  main  question  rests  in  the  use  of 
the  other  subsidiary  motions  stated  in  the  table. 

To  LAY  ON  THE  TABLE. 

The  moving  of  this  question  has  the  effect  of  post- 
poning the  debate.  It  carries  with  it  everything  that 
belongs  to  the  question.  Should  the  motion  be 
made  on  the  amendment,  it  carries  with  it  the  main 
question  also.  The  favorable  action  upon  this 
motion  has  no  effect  on  the  condition  of  the  main 
question  or  its  amendments.  It  simply  lays  it  all 
aside,  and  when  called  up  at  some  future  time  is  in 
precisely  the  same  condition  as  when  it  was  laid  upon 
the  table.  If  the  motion  to  lay  on  the  table  is  not 
carried,  it  cannot  be  again  made  until  by  reason  of 
some  amendment  or  other  change  in  the  main  ques- 
tion that  question  presents  a  new  phase.  It  is  not 
debatable  nor  can  it  be  amended.  It  is  of  equal  rank 
with  other  subsidiary  motions  except  that  of  con- 
sideration, to  which  it  is  inferior,  and  in  practical  use 
it  is  designed  to  kill  a  proposition  against  which  it  is 
raised. 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

To  POSTPONE  INDEFINITELY. 

The  motion  to  postpone  indefinitely  is  used  when 
the  debate,  having  proceeded,  it  is  desired  to  lay 
aside  the  further  consideration  of  the  question  with- 
out bringing  a  determination  of  the  question.  Its 
purpose,  in  addition,  is  to  test  the  strength  of  the 
sentiment  in  favor  of  the  proposition  under  dis- 
cussion inasmuch  as  a  defeat  of  the  motion  itself  is 
favorable  to  the  main  question.  Since  the  fate  of 
the  main  question  itself  is  at  stake  as  to  its  advisa- 
bility and  practicability,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  motion 
must  be  debatable.  It  is  not  amendable  and  when 
decided  in  the  affirmative  the  main  question  is  de- 
feated. It  has  the  same  standing  as  that  to  commit, 
to  postpone  to  a  certain  day  or  the  previous  question. 

To  POSTPONE  TO  A  CERTAIN  DAY. 

« 

The  name  of  the  motion  describes  it  fully.  It  is 
of  use  in  cases  where  further  information  is  desired 
upon  the  subject  under  discussion,  which  is  not  then 
available.  It  may  also  occur  that  there  are  matters 
of  greater  importance  which  require  immediate  at- 
tention. Under  such  a  circumstance  a  motion  to 
postpone  to  a  certain  day  retains  to  the  main  ques- 
tion all  its  rights  and  privileges  until  that  day  shall 
arrive.  It  is  amendable  only  so  far  as  the  time  to 
tvhich  the  postponement  shall  take  place  and  it  is  de- 
batable on  the  question  of  postponement  only.  If 
decided  in  the  negative,  it  leaves  the  main  question 
still  open  for  debate.  The  improper  use  of  this 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  479 

motion  is  to  designate  a  day  to  which  the  main 
question  shall  be  deferred  that  can  have  no  possible 
existence,  because  the  assembly  will  then  be  ad- 
journed. Such  a  use  practically  makes  it  a  question 
of  indefinite  postponement  and  is  not  the  proper  use 
of  this  motion. 

In  the  usage  of  the  motions  to  lay  on  the  table,  to 
postpone  indefinitely  and  to  postpone  to  a  certain 
day,  it  must  be  remembered,  as  has  been  stated,  that 
their  affirmative  acceptance  by  an  assembly  defers 
the  action  upon  the  main  question ;  but  in  order  to 
again  bring  these  matters  forward  for  debate  and 
possible  passage,  a  formal  motion  is  needed.  Even 
if  a  question  be  postponed  to  a  certain  day,  the  mere 
fact  that  that  day  has  arrived  does  not  bring  the  sub- 
ject again  before  the  assembly.  A  formal  motion 
when  favorably  acted  upon  brings  the  matter  up  for 
debate,  and  only  by  this  method  can  the  subject  be 
officially  passed  upon.  Otherwise  it  is  dead. 

To  COMMIT. 

Immediately  after  the  statement  of  the  motion  by 
the  presiding  officer,  or  at  any  other  time  in  the  de- 
bate, it  may  appear  that  the  subject  can  be  more 
fully  investigated  by  a  committee.  The  assembly 
may  desire  fuller  knowledge,  or  it  may  be  that  the 
proposition  is  not  in  accordance  with  recognized 
principles  of  action.  A  further  discussion  would 
be  a  needless  waste  of  the  assembly's  time.  To 
dispose  of  the  matter  so  that  the  best  of  what 


480   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  proposition  may  contain  shall  be  sifted  out,  is  a 
wise  provision.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  the 
motion  to  commit.  This  motion  then  contemplates 
not  the  passage  of  the  subject  matter  under  discus- 
sion, nor  yet  does  it  negative  anything  that  has  been 
proposed.  It  is  purely  for  the  purpose  of  expediting 
the  business  in  hand.  It  is  often  used  to  dispose  of 
obnoxious  legislation,  so  that  reaching  the  committee 
its  unfavorable  provisions  may  be  removed,  or  the 
whole  matter  may  never  be  permitted  to  reach  the 
stage  of  a  report. 

When  this  motion  is  carried,  the  whole  matter 
with  all  the  amendments  goes  to  the  committee,  and 
this  motion  may  direct  what  disposition  the  com- 
mittee is  to  make  of  the  matter  thus  submitted.  It 
may  also  create  the  committee  thus  charged  with  the 
duty  where  none  exists. 

It  is  debatable  but  not  so  as  to  involve  the  main 
question,  since,  if  decided  in  the  affirmative,  it  leaves 
the  whole  discussion  to  that  period  when  the  com- 
mittee shall  have  made  its  report.  It  is  amendable 
because  it  may  or  may  not  contain  a  direction  or  in- 
struction to  the  committee.  In  that  event,  if  the  in- 
structions involve  the  main  question,  the  debate  be- 
comes the  same  as  if  no  motion  to  commit  had  been 
made. 

THE  PREVIOUS  QUESTION. 

The  use  of  the  previous  question  is  very  general 
in  the  American  practice  for  the  purpose  of  shutting 
off  debate.  It  is  the  weapon  by  which  those  who 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW. 

would  obstruct  the  rapid  transaction  of  business  are 
prevented  from  using  up  time  by  simply  talking. 

Originally  this  motion  was  used  for  the  purpose 
of  suppressing  the  main  question.  It  matters  came 
up  in  Parliament  which  involved  those  whose  posi- 
tions were  high  in  state,  this  motion,  if  carried,  sup- 
pressed the  main  question  and  set  it  aside  absolutely. 
In  our  American  practice,  as  intimated,  it  has 
acquired  the  other  and  better  use  of  bringing  to 
a  vote  the  proposition  involved  under  the  main 
question.  The  vast  amount  of  time  which  has  been 
wasted  in  many  deliberative  bodies  has  proved  the 
value  of  this  motion  to  prevent  this  needless 
talk.  That  all  questions  before  any  assembly  are 
entitled  to  the  fullest  discussion  is  a  fact  that  no  one 
can  deny,  but  often  there  are  other  and  greater  in- 
terests which  are  to  be  conserved.  The  previous 
question  has  the  effect  of  conserving  this  purpose. 
Being  ordered  by  the  consent  of  a  majority  of  those 
present,  it  represents  the  will  of  the  assembly  toward 
the  furthering  of  the  business  in  hand.  In  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States  this  motion  has  no 
place,  the  Senatorial  courtesy  allowing  the  fullest 
an'd  freest  debate  on  all  subjects.  The  passage  of 
time  or  the  interests  of  the  people  apparently  having 
no  weight. 

In  practice  the  use  of  the  previous  question  is  as 
follows :  Where  the  debate  has  reached  a  point 
that  some  member  believes  it  should  cease,  or  if 
when  the  president  shall  have  formally  stated  the 


482   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

motion,  debate  shall  not  be  desired,  some  member 
arises  and  says  :  "  I  move  the  previous  question." 
The  presiding  officer  may  use  the  old  formula 
"Shall  the  main  question  now  be  put?"  or  he  may 
say,  which  is  now  the  better  practice,  "  Mr.  -  —  de- 
mands the  previous  question.  Those  in  favor  will 
please  say  aye  ;  those  opposed,  no/'  It  follows  that 
the  previous  question  is  neither  debatable  nor 
amendable.  If  carried,  the  amendments,  if  any,  are 
first  put  and  then  the  main  question.  If  the  previous 
question  be  not  carried,  the  consideration  goes  on  as 
before.  The  previous  question  itself  may  be  de- 
ferred by  a  motion  to  lay  it  on  the  table,  which,  in 
the  event  of  its  adoption,  permits  the  debate  to  pro- 
ceed ;  but  if  defeated,  the  business  of  the  assembly 
is  to  dispose  of  the  previous  question. 

Again  the  previous  question  on  its  adoption  may 
be  deferred  by  a  motion  to  adjourn.  This,  if  car- 
ried, makes  the  action  under  the  previous  question 
the  first  business  of  the  next  session  of  the  assembly. 

The  previous  question  is  regarded  as  of  equal  im- 
portance as  the  other  subsidiary  motions  except  the 
first  two  named  and  cannot  be  used  to  dispose  of  any 
of  them.  The  previous  question  is  solely  for  the 
purpose  of  shutting  off  debate  and  bringing  im- 
mediate action  upon  the  main  question. 

AMENDMENTS. 

The  use  of  the  subsidiary  motions  having  failed 
to  set  aside  the  debate  on  the  motion  before  the 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  485 

assembly,  it  is  now  ready  for  the  fullest  discussion. 
It  is  apparent  that  whatever  its  form,  the  question 
may  not  be  absolutely  satisfactory  to  all  present. 
The  sole  object  of  the  debate  is  to  arrive  at  a 
final  conclusion  respecting  the  motion  that  shall  rep- 
resent the  concensus  of  the  opinion  of  all,  or  if  not 
all,  the  largest  possible  proportion  of  those  present. 

Generally  in  deliberative  bodies  of  a  comparatively 
small  membership,  the  motions  are  short  and  their 
general  tenor  can  be  readily  borne  in  mind  ;  but  in 
larger  asemblies,  especially  those  which  are  legisla- 
tive or  municipal  in  character,  the  subject-matter  for 
discussion  involves  several  propositions  and,  there- 
fore, should  be  printed.  Thus  a  BILL  is  practically  a 
motion  when  presented  in  proper  form  to  a  legisla- 
tive body  and  it  is  obvious  that  each  member  should 
possess  a  copy.  In  all  assemblies  of  this  character, 
the  motions  which  have  many  varying  propositions 
should  be  printed.  A  set  of  resolutions  often  con- 
tain a  preamble  as  a  sort  of  introduction  to  what  the 
resolutions  themselves  seek  to  explain.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  discuss  the  resolutions  and  pass  upon  them 
and  then  to  dispose  of  the  preamble. 

The  main  question  under  discussion  when  first 
proposed  may  not  represent  the  opinion  of  some 
who,  in  a  general  way,  may  be  favorable  to  the  prin- 
ciple which  it  may  contain.  It  is  evident  that  there 
ought  to  be  some  means  by  which  it  may  be  modi- 
fied and  changed  so  as  to  be  generally  acceptable. 
This  is  accomplished  by  amendment.  To  be  de- 


484   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

prived  of  this  method  of  correction  would  require 
the  acceptance  of  that  which  was  dissatisfactory  in 
part  or  in  whole,  or  the  rejection  of  that  which  may 
have  contained  something  that  was  commendable. 
So  it  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  a  principle  of 
parliamentary  practice  that  whatever  the  assembly 
has  a  right  to  originate,  it  has  also  a  right  to  amend. 

An  amendment  then  is  a  motion  having  relation  to 
a  preceding  motion  in  order  that  the  same  may  be 
changed  or  modified.  It  is  proposed  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  original  motion  and  must  be  seconded 
and  restated  by  the  presiding  officer  before  it  can  be 
debated. 

The  general  method  of  amendment  is  by  one  of 
four  ways : 

I.   Inserting  words. 
II.   Striking  out  words. 

III.  Striking  out  and  inserting. 

IV.  By  substitution. 

The  amendment  itself  is  susceptible  of  amend- 
ment and  at  that  point  the  amendments  cease.  If 
the  process  of  amendment  were  to  be  prolonged,  it 
will  be  seen  that  an  infinite  number  would  be  added, 
so  that  great  confusion  might  ensue.  Hence,  the 
amendment  to  the  amendment  is  fixed  as  the  limit. 
The  amendment  to  the  amendment  must  first  be 
disposed  of  and  all  discussion  when  that  is  pending 
must  be  upon  the  proposition  therein.  When  this 
shall  have  been  voted  upon,  the  amendment  must 
then  be  taken  up.  But  the  amended  amendment 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  485 

may  be  amended  by  a  new  motion  to  amend.  The 
amended  amendment  having  been  decided  the 
amended  motion  becomes  the  question  for  decision. 
The  general  rule  is,  that  whenever  an  amendment 
shall  have  been  disposed  of,  it  is  right,  if  deemed 
needful  to  the  proper  completion  of  the  business  in 
hand,  to  amend.  A  negative  action  upon  an  amend- 
ment disposes  of  that  amendment  permanently  and 
it  cannot  again  be  proposed. 

To  amend  by  inserting  words  is  the  simple  process 
of  adding  words  to  the  main  question  or  of  interpo- 
lating in  the  body  of  the  main  question.  It  is  neces- 
sary that  the  mover  of  such  an  amendment  shall 
specify  where  the  words  are  to  be  inserted  and  what 
will  be  the  nature  of  the  main  question  with  the  new 
words  inserted.  If  there  be  no  debate  on  the  amend- 
ment, the  presiding  officer  shall  then  rise  and  say, 
"  The  question  is  upon  the  amendment  to  insert," 
stating  what  is  to  be  inserted. 

If  carried  it  then  becomes  a  part  of  the  main  ques- 
tion. A  negative  action  prevents  the  matter  being 
brought  forward  again  in  that  shape  and  the  main 
question  remains  the  same. 

To  amend  by  striking  out  is  similar  to  the  preced- 
ing method.  The  mover  should  state  in  his  motion 
to  amend  what  words  are  to  be  stricken  out  and  what 
the  main  question  will  be  when  they  are  so  eliminated. 
This  amendment,  like  all  others  of  first  degree,  is 
susceptible  of  amendment  and  of  debate,  which,  if  not 
offered,  the  presiding  officer  shall  rise  and  say,  "  The 


486   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

question  is  upon  the  amendment  to  strike  out,"  stating 
what  is  to  be  stricken  out. 

If  the  action  on  the  amendment  is  in  the  affirmative, 
then  the  words  become  no  part  of  the  main  question. 
If  it  fails  to  receive  the  assent  of  a  majority  present, 
it  leaves  the  main  question  in  its  original  form  and 
the  same  amendment  cannot  again  be  proposed. 

There  may  arise  a  question  which,  in  order  to  make 
it  agreeable  to  the  opinions  of  those  present,  may  re- 
quire that  some  words  be  stricken  out  and  others  in- 
serted. This  may  be  effected  by  the  third  method 
—  by  striking  out  and  inserting.  The  amendment 
must  state  the  words  to  be  stricken  out  and  those  to 
be  inserted.  This  motion  to  amend  cannot  be 
divided.  It  is  one  act  of 'change.  It  must  be  decided 
as  it  is  presented.  It  can  be  amended  by  adding 
other  words  to  be  stricken  out  in  addition  to  those 
mentioned  in  the  original  amendment  and  by  inserting 
others,  but  the  amendment  is  a  unity  and  must  be 
taken  as  such  when  decided.  If  not  debated  or 
amended,  the  presiding  officer  shall  rise  and  say, 
"  The  question  is  on  the  amendment  to  strike  out  and 
insert,"  stating  the  words  thus  to  be  removed  and 
inserted. 

The  affirmative  action  removes  from  the  main 
question  the  words  to  be  eliminated  and  inserts  the 
desired  addition.  The  negative  of  the  amendment 
leaves  the  main  question  or  amendment  as  it  stood. 

To  amend  by  substitution,  is  in  effect  the  same  as 
the  preceding  motion.  A  person  desiring  to  thus 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  487 

amend,  in  effect,  takes  away  from  a  proposition  cer- 
tain portions  and  substitutes  others.  In  the  use  of 
the  preceding  method  of  amendment,  the  portion  to 
be  stricken  out  may  occur  in  a  different  section  of  a 
paragraph  under  discussion  from  that  wherein  words 
are  to  be  inserted.  Whatever  is  stricken  out,  is  out 
forever  and  the  same  rule  applies  to  whatever  is  in- 
serted. Usage  has  made  it  that  when  a  paragraph 
is  stricken  out  and  another  inserted,  those  who  favor 
the  old  paragraph  shall  have  the  privilege  of  perfect- 
ing it  before  the  motion  to  strike  out  shall  have  been 
decided.  A  little  reflection  will  show  that  without 
such  a  provision,  the  rejection  of  the  original  para- 
graph would  remove  it  forever  and  the  new  one  might 
not  possess  the  requirements  acceptable  to  all. 

The  difference  between  these  last  two  methods  of 
amendment  is  that  of  location.  In  practice,  motions 
to  amend  by  substitution  simply  supply  a  new  and 
perhaps  totally  different  proposition  to  that  one  con- 
tained in  the  original  question,  and,  in  effect,  strikes 
out  and  inserts.  It  applies  to  but  one  place  in  a 
proposition. 

The  use  of  the  amendment  by  substitution  is 
sometimes  preferable  to  that  of  amendment  by  strik- 
ing out  and  inserting. 

In  general  where  whole  paragraphs  are  to  be 
stricken  out  and  new  ones  inserted,  or  where  the 
amendment  is  by  substitution  of  one  paragraph  for 
another,  the  right  to  perfect  each  is  undisputed,  and 
until  such  perfection  of  both  the  old  and  the  new 


488   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

paragraph  is  completed  the  motion  lies  in  abeyance, 
unless  ordered  by  the  previous  question.  If  neither 
paragraph  is  acceptable,  then  a  negative  action  on 
the  motion  to  substitute  prevents  the  new  paragraph 
from  being  accepted,  and  a  second  motion  to  strike 
out  the  original  paragraph  removes  that  paragraph. 

The  adoption  of  an  amendment  does  not  adopt 
the  main  question.  The  adoption  of  the  amendment 
to  the  amendment  does  not  adopt  the  amendment. 
Whenever  an  amendment  shall  have  been  adopted,  the 
question  of  which  it  is  now  a  part  is  to  be  adopted. 
So  that  whenever  the  discussion  on  an  amend- 
ment to  an  amendment  shall  have  reached  that 
point  where  action  is  ready  to  be  taken,  the  presiding 
officer  shall  say,  "The  question  is  on  the  amendment 
to  the  amendment."  When  that  is  decided  and  the 
debate  on  the  amended  amendment  is  completed,  the 
presiding  officer  then  says,  "  The  question  is  now  on 
the  amended  amendment."  When  all  amendments 
have  thus  been  disposed  of,  the  presiding  officer  then 
says,  "The  question  is  on  the  motion  as  amended/' 

No  more  than  one  amendment  can  be  pending  at 
one  time  and  when  settled  by  the  assembly  other 
amendments  are  always  in  order. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  mover  of  a  motion  has 
10  control  over  it  after  it  has  come  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  assembly.  This  is  the  strict  rule.  In 
many  cases  the  custom  has  permitted  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  motion  by  the  mover  accepting  suggested 
amendments,  and  thus  avoiding  the  debate  and  action 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  489 

by  the  assembly.  All  this  is  purely  by  courtesy  and 
common  consent,  and  can  be  proper  when  no  objec- 
tion is  made.  Strict  application  of  the  principles  of 
parliamentary  law  makes  this  an  infringement  of  the 
practice. 

The  main  question  may  present  a  series  of  propo- 
sitions which  may  be  so  crudely  drawn  as  to  fail  to 
represent  that  which  may  be  acceptable  to  all,  but 
which  may  contain  that  which,  if  properly  arranged, 
would  be  of  the  highest  utility.  Such  a  question 
may  be  amended  by  adding  certain  paragraphs  to- 
gether, or  by  transposing  the  order,  or  by  separating 
into  paragraphs  the  whole  question  itself.  Such  a 
course  would  be  an  amendment  of  the  original  ques- 
tion. In  a  deliberative  body,  such  as  a  State  Legisla- 
ture, the  work  could  be  much  better  accomplished  by 
a  committee,  but  where  the  assembly  must  perform 
the  task,  the  amendments  are  by  addition,  separation 
and  transposition.  The  main  question  may  contain 
two  propositions;  the  first  may  be  highly  satisfactory, 
but  the  second  may  be  objectionable.  To  act  upon 
it  as  a  whole,  would  be  to  imperil  the  part  that  was 
acceptable  because  of  the  character  of  the  second 
part.  Such  a  difficulty  is  avoided  by  dividing  the 
question  and  submitting  each  proposition  separately. 
Such  a  course  of  amendment  is  known  as  division. 
It  is  evident  that  when  the  main  question  is  thus  di- 
vided, each  division  must  be  a  clear  and  distinct 
proposition  and  be  capable  of  representing  a  state- 
ment of  fact  that  is  unmistakable.  In  practice,  this 


49°   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

amendment  can  be  demanded  by  any  member,  and  if 
the  assembly  refuse,  the  same  purpose  can  be 
effected  by  a  motion  to  strike  out  the  offensive  por- 
tion. The  filling  of  blanks  in  the  main  question  is 
not  regarded  in  the  strict  sense  of  an  amendment. 
All  the  amounts  proposed  are  set  down  by  the  pre- 
siding officer  and  the  highest  amount  is  presented 
for  approval.  If  this  is  disapproved,  the  next  lower 
one  is  submitted.  Thus  the  process  proceeds  until 
an  amount  shall  have  been  reached  which  shall  repre- 
sent the  wishes  of  the  majority. 

To  treat  the  filling  of  blanks  as  an  amendemnt 
would  prevent  those  who  might  desire  a  different  and 
greater  amount  than  that  suggested  in  the  amendment 
from  voting  against  it  lest  another  amendment  might 
suggest  a  less  amount. 

The  object  of  all  amendments  .is  for  the  purpose 
of  perfecting  the  main  question.  It  is  evident  that 
they  should  be  in  harmony  with  the  main  question 
and  not  bring  in  matter  that  is  foreign  to  the  sub- 
ject. Those  who  may  not  favor  the  main  question 
may  often  so  construct  an  amendment  which  if 
adopted  will  present  the  opposite  aspect  to  that  in- 
tended by  the  main  question.  Such  an  amendment 
has  the  effect  of  making  the  mover  and  friends  of 
main  question  its  enemies.  Such  a  use  of  the 
amendment  is  allowable,  and  properly  so,  because  it 
is  a  means  by  which  offensive  and  highly  improper 
motions  may  be  disposed  of  when  all  subsidiary 
motions  have  failed.  To  propose  an  amendment 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  49! 

which  shall  change  the  substance  of  the  main  ques- 
tion is  in  order.  However,  to  simply  amend  so  that 
the  affirmative  shall  be  changed  to  the  negative  of  a 
question  is  not  in  order  and  is  not  an  amendment  in 
the  true  sense  of  the  word. 

The  constitutionality  of  an  amendment  is  entirely 
a  matter  for  the  assembly  to  decide.  Any  amend- 
ment which  shall  seem  to  be  incompatible  or  incon- 
sistent is  open  to  discussion  and  the  assembly  has 
the  sole  power  of  accepting  or  rejecting  it.  In  all 
cases  when  this  condition  exists  a  point  of  order 
upon  the  amendment  is  out  of  order,  since  the  presid- 
ing officer  cannot  pre-empt  the  powers  which  belorfg 
to  the  assembly. 

MOTIONS. 

The  proper  conclusion  of  a  main  question  is  its 
decision  affirmatively  or  negatively  by  the  assembly. 
Before  such  a  conclusion  can  be  reached,  other 
motions  having  more  or  less  general  reference  to  the 
main  question  may  arise  and  must  be  decided  before 
any  conclusion  can  be  reached  on  the  main  question. 

These  motions  are  grouped  under  three  general 
heads.  Their  use  is  mainly  for  the  general  protection 
of  the  rights  of  the  members  and  for  the  elucidation 
of  the  subjects  proposed  in  the  questions  to  which 
they  more  or  less  relate. 

They  are  as  follows  : 

I.  Questions  of  privilege. 
II.   Subsidiary  questions. 

III.   Incidental  questions. 


492   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

When  these  questions  are  raised  they  must  receive 
immediate  attention.  In  some  cases,  as  we  have  seen, 
they  dispose  of  the  main  question  absolutely.  In 
other  cases,  they  simply  defer  action.  Some  of  them 
are  subject  to  debate  and  amendment.  Others  are  to 
be  decided  without  debate  and  cannot  be  amended. 

PRIVILEGED  MOTIONS. 

By  Privileged  Motions  are  meant  those  motions 
which  because  of  their  importance  require  immediate 
attention  and  action.  They  may  have  a  reference 
to  the  main  question  under  discussion  and  may  be  of 
use  to  defer  action  upon  the  main  question.  In  prac- 
tice, however,  they  stand  alone  without  involving- 
subjects  which  may  be  before  the  assembly  for  action 
and  are  privileged  in  that  sense. 
They  are  as  follows  : 

I.  Motions  to  adjourn. 

II.   Motions  to  fix  the  time  to  which  the  assembly 
shall  adjourn. 

III.  Motions  for  a  recess. 

IV.  General     privilege    in    which    the    whole    as- 

sembly is  involved. 

V.  Personal  privilege  involving  the    rights  of   a 
member. 

ADJOURNMENT. 

The  motion  to  adjourn,  as  its  name  implies,  per- 
mits an  assembly  to  cease  from  its  labors. 

When  no  other  provision  exists,  the  ordinary  use 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  493 

of  the  motion  to  acliourn  has  reference  to  a  cessation 
of  the  business  of  the  assembly  until  the  next  period 
appointed  by  the  rules  for  its  assembling.  The  old 
statement  that  a  motion  to  adjourn  is  always  in  order 
is  true  in  a  sense,  but  there  are  exceptions  under 
which  it  is  not  in  order.  It  cannot  be  proposed  when 
three  conditions  obtain,  namely  :  If  a  member  shall 
have  the  floor,  or  the  assembly  shall  be  ascertaining 
the  correctness  of  a  vote,  or  the  assembly  itself  is 
dividing  upon  a  motion.  Under  such  circumstances, 
it  would  not  be  in  order.  Among  the  questions  of 
privilege  it  stands  first,  and  if  having  been  put  and 
lost  it  cannot  again  be  moved  until  some  other  busi- 
ness shall  have  been  acted  upon. 

The  motion  to  adjourn  is  not  debatable  nor 
amendable  unless  the  motion,  if  carried,  should 
cause  the  dissolution  of  the  assembly.  All  legis- 
lative bodies  are,  by  law,  made  to  continue  from  day 
to  day,  and  the  motion  that  "we  do  now  adjourn," 
is  under  the  express  understanding  that  it  is  to 
assemble  the  next  day.  Hence,  the  matter  of  when 
the  sittings  of  any  deliberative  body  shall  take 
place,  is  a  very  important  consideration. 

It  is  evident  that  because  of  the  character  of  this 
motion  its  affirmative  passage  will  cause  a  cessation 
of  any  business  in  hand ;  and  for  that  reason  it 
may  be  used  in  the  sense  of  a  subsidiary  motion  to 
defer  debate.  The  effect  of  such  an  adjournment 
does  not  place  the  business  of  the  next  session  at 
the  same  point  where  the  last  session  left  it.  The 


494   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

business  must  be  brought  forward  in  the  usual  man- 
ner, if  it  is  to  be  again  discussed,  as  the  unfinished 
business. 

If,  however,  it  should  be  the  purpose  of  an  as- 
sembly to  lay  aside  all  business  for  a  short  period  in 
order  that  some  needful  rest  might  be  obtained,  the 
motion  then  is  for  a  recess  rather  than  for  an  ad- 
journment. Such  a  motion  should  state  the  time 
to  which  the  intermission  extends.  Such  a  motion 
has  all  the  privileges  of  the  motion  to  adjourn. 
The  motion  to  fix  the  time  of  adjournment  is  a 
privileged  motion,  in  the  sense  that  when  made  it 
takes  precedence  overall  other  motions,  unless  a  mo- 
tion for  a  recess  is  pending.  It  is  obvious  that  a 
motion  to  take  a  recess  is  in  its  essence  substantially 
a  motion  to  adjourn  to  a  certain  day.  It  is  evident 
that  a  motion  cannot  be  privileged  against  itself. 
Such  a  motion  would  be  in  order  if  an  assembly 
whose  regular  meeting  came  each  day  desired  to 
adjourn  for  two  days.  If  so  moved,  it  would  be 
debatable  and  amendable  and  would  be  a  privileged 
motion. 

QUESTIONS  OF  PRIVILEGE. 

The  next  two  prominent  motions  are  termed  Ques- 
tions of  Privilege.  As  observed  in  the  table,  they  are 
of  two  kinds ;  the  infringement  of  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  the  assembly ;  the  infringement  of  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  its  members. 

Questions  of  privilege,  whether   general   or   per- 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  495 

sonal  in  character,  are  to  be  defined  as  those  which, 
in  the  first  case,  affect  the  dignity  and  integrity  of 
the  assembly  itself ;  or,  in  the  second,  the  honesty, 
character  and  reputation  of  the  members.  Any  in- 
fraction of  the  good  order  of  the  assembly  from 
without,  such  as  the  disorderly  character  of  any  visi- 
tor who  may  be  permitted  to  be  present,  would 
come  under  the  head  of  a  question  of  general  privi- 
lege. Any  attack  by  newspapers  upon  the  good 
name  of  a  member  or  a  personal  encounter  during 
the  session  of  an  assembly  can  be  regarded  as  a 
question  of  persona^  privilege. 

Whenever  a  question  of  privilege  shall  be  raised 
by  a  member,  he  is  required  to  rise  and  say :  "  I  rise 
to  a  question  of  privilege."  He  then  proceeds  to 
state  what  the  question  is.  He  may  have  been 
falsely  charged  with  improper  conduct.  He  addresses 
his  remarks  to  the  presiding  officer.  It  is  the  pro- 
vince of  the  presiding  officer  to  decide  whether  it  be 
a  question  of  privilege.  If  he  so  decides,  the  assem- 
bly immediately  takes  formal  action  by  which  the 
matter  may  be  thoroughly  sifted.  The  question  of 
privilege  decided,  the  assembly  proceeds  with  the 
consideration  of  whatever  business  was  interrupted. 

Should  the  decision  of  the  presiding  officer  be  a 
negative  one,  the  assembly  proceeds  with  the  work 
that  was  interrupted  when  the  question  of  privilege 
was  raised.  Whatever  the  decision  of  the  presiding 
officer,  it  is  subject  to  appeal,  and  the  assembly,  in 
effect,  decides  whether  the  subject-matter  thus 


49^   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

brought  forward  when  the  question  of  privilege  is 
raised  is  of  such  importance  as  to  need  adjustment. 

SUBSIDIARY  MOTIONS. 

Subsidiary  motions  have  already  been  treated  in 
the  preceding  pages. 

INCIDENTAL  QUESTIONS. 

Incidental  Questions  are  those  which  arise  from 
other  motions,  whether  they  be  privileged  or  sub- 
sidiary. They  are  to  be  decided  before  any  decision 
can  be  given  on  the  main  or  other  questions  to  which 
they  are  tributary.  They  are  she  in  number,  viz.: 

I.  Questions  of  order. 
II.    Reading  of  papers. 

III.  Withdrawing  a  motion. 

IV.  Suspension  of  a  rule. 
V.   Division  of  a  question. 

VI.  Amendment  to  an  amendment. 

QUESTIONS  OF  ORDER. 

To  the  presiding  officer  is  delegated  the  power  of 
preserving  order.  He  is  not  the  sole  arbiter  of  what 
constitutes  order.  That  has  been  decided  by  the 
assembly  when  it  created  the  rules  for  its  guidance. 
To  the  presiding  officer  the  task  obtains  to  see  that 
these  rules  are  carried  out.  It  is  manifest  that  with- 
out orderly  regard  for  these  rules  on  the  part  of 
the  members  themselves,  the  presiding  officer  can 
have  but  little  hope  to  preserve  order.  No  business 
of  any  sort  can  be  properly  done  unless  order  is 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  497 

preserved.  This  matter  of  order  is  general  in  its 
character  and  has  reference  to  what  is  said 
as  well  as  done.  Any  departure  from  the  rules 
is  a  breach  of  order  which  the  presiding  officer  is  to 
correct.  In  his  absence  so  to  correct,  it  is  the  right 
of  any  member  to  call  attention  to  this  fact  and 
insist  on  an  enforcement  of  the  rule.  If  the  presid- 
ing officer  himself  fails  to  see  that  the  regular  pro- 
cedure of  business  is  not  being  followed,  his  atten- 
tion should  be  called  to  that  fact  in  order  that  the 
business  may  be  done  in  order.  It  is  the  right  of 
any  member  to  have  the  business  proceed  with  due 
regard  to  the  rules.  Thus,  if  the  rules  provided  that 
no  member  should  speak  more  than  twice  on  any 
motion,  and  some  member  should  essay  to  speak  a 
third  time,  it  would  be  the  province  of  any  member 
to  rise  and  say  "  I  rise  to  a  point  of  order."  The  pre- 
siding officer  should  then  require  him  to  state  it. 
The  statement  of  the  point  of  order  would  be  to 
show  what  the  rules  provided  and  call  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  member  was  offending  against  the 
established  rule.  The  presiding  officer  would  then 
say  "  The  point  of  order  is  well  taken,"  indicating 
thereby  that  the  member  thus  essaying  to  speak  was 
out  of  order.  All  decisions  of  a  presiding  officer 
are  subject  to  an  appeal  and  such  appeal  is  debat- 
able Whenever  an  appeal  is  taken  from  a  decision 
of  the  Chair,  the  question  then  for  the  presiding 
officer  to  propound  is,  "  Shall  the  decision  of  the 
Chair  stand?"  This  question  is  subject,  as  before 
32 


498   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

remarked,  to  debate  in  which  the  presiding  officer 
has  a  right  to  participate.  The  affirmative  action 
of  the  assembly  sustains  the  decision  of  the  Chair. 
An  appeal  does  not  require  to  be  seconded  and  is 
subject  to  all  other  motions  as  the  main  question 
itself.  Whatever  questions  of  order  may  come  up 
in  the  process  of  the  debate  on  an  appeal  from  the 
Chair's  decision,  must  be  at  once  decided  by  the  pre- 
siding officer,  since  but  one  appeal  can  be  under  ad- 
justment at  same  time. 

READING  OF  PAPERS. 

It  is  apparent  that  whenever  a  motion  shall  have 
been  offered  and  become  the  possession  of  the  as- 
sembly, the  right  to  have  the  same  read  by  any 
member  cannot  be  disputed.  It  is  for  the  sole  pur- 
pose of  informing  the  member,  so  that  he  may  be  en- 
abled to  vote  intelligently,  When  so  requested  the 
clerk,  by  direction  of  the  presiding  officer,  is  to  read 
the  paper.  There  come,  however,  times  when  in 
the  course  of  debate,  some  member  may  desire  to 
have  read  some  paper  not  a  part  of  the  question,  nor 
in  any  sense  an  amendment  thereto,  but  a  paper 
which  shall  give  further  information  upon  the  ques- 
tion at  issue.  If  the  wholesale  reading  of  such 
papers  were  permitted,  it  is  quite  easy  to  see  how 
very  prolix  might  become  the  discussion  upon  the 
subject  in  hand.  General  parliamentary  practice  has 
very  wisely  limited  the  reading  of  papers  to  such 
ones  as  the  assembly  by  vote  shall  desire  to  hear. 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  499 

Hence,  the  request  by  a  member  to  read  a  paper  is 
.an  incidental  question  to  the  main  question  and  is  to 
be  decided  as  of  the  same  character  as  a  motion,  but 
without  debate.  In  common  practice  the  reading  of 
papers  is  by  courtesy,  and  if  objection  is  made  it 
cannot  be  read  except  as  stated. 

WITHDRAWING  A  MOTION. 

A  motion  once  stated  by  the  Chair  is  the  sole  and 
absolute  possession  of  an  assembly.  The  mover 
may  desire  its  withdrawal,  but  only  can  this  be  done 
when  the  assembly  pleases.  He  is  powerless  except 
by  a  regular  motion  to  withdraw,  and  whenever  so 
made  by  the  mover  of  a  motion,  must  be  decided  at 
once  and  without  debate.  The  affirmative  action  on 
a  motion  to  withdraw,  removes  the  main  question. 
If  the  motion  receives  a  negative  action,  the  as- 
sembly retains  possession  of  the  main  question.  In 
some  assemblies  a  special  rule  permits  the  mover 
to  withdraw  a  motion  before  amendment  or  decis- 
ion upon  it. 

SUSPENSION  OF  RULES 

The  regular  course  of  business  in  coming  to  a  de- 
cision on  the  main  question  may  reach  a  point 
wherein  an  existing  rule  made  by  the  assembly  for 
its  guidance  may  prevent  a  continuance  of  the  de- 
bate. It  may  be  that  the  highest  interests  of  the 
assembly  are  to  be  conserved  by  the  passage  of  the 
proposed  question  under  debate.  To  accomplish 


500   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

this  purpose  the  existing  rules  must  be  suspended, 
It  is  then  in  order  to  move  a  suspension  of  the  rules. 
Parliamentary  practice  has  come  to  recognize  such  a 
contingency,  by  requiring  that  such  a  provision  shall 
be  inserted  in  the  rules  that  govern  the  assembly, 
since  in  the  absence  of  such  a  provision  no  suspen- 
sion can  be  had  When  a  suspension  of  the  rules  is 
allowable,  a  motion  to  suspend  is  to  be  decided  at 
once  and  is  not,  of  course,  debatable.  This  pro- 
vision to  suspend  rules  is  surrounded  by  safeguards, 
and  as  a  rule,  something  more  than  a  majority  vote 
is  needed  to  effect  a  suspension.  Ordinarily  three- 
fifths  and  often  three-fourths  of  those  present  and 
voting  are  needed  to  suspend  a  rule. 

The  incidental  motions  of  division  and  of  amend- 
ment have  already  been  treated  at  length  in  this 
treatise. 

R.ECONSIDERATION. 

The  rule  of  all  deliberative  assemblies,  that  what- 
ever is  voted  upon  and  so  disposed  of  represents  the 
judgment  of  the  assembly,  is  a  wise  one.  Having 
discussed  a  subject  and  expressed  an  opinion  favor- 
able or  otherwise  thereto,  it  is  assumed  that  this  is 
the  best  judgment  of  the  assembly,  and,  hence,  is 
not  to  be  changed. 

In  the  English  practice,  to  change  such  action,  or 
even  to  review  it,  seems  to  be  impossible.  In  our 
American  practice,  the  mere  passage  of  the  main 
question,  whether  amended  or  not,  does  not  finally 
dispose  of  it.  It  is  still  subject  to  review  and  may 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  50 1 

again  be  properly  considered.  To  effect  this  pur- 
pose the  motion  to  reconsider  becomes  operative. 

A  motion  to  reconsider  is  not  debarred  from  any 
course  of  action  by  the  assembly.  It  may  be  used 
with  reference  to  the  vote  on  an  amendment  as  well 
as  upon  the  main  question  and  applies  equally  as 
well  upon  an  affirmative  action  as  upon  a  negative 
one. 

Before  considering  at  length  the  motion  to  recon- 
sider, it  is  proper  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
certain  amendments  may  be  proposed  which  may  be 
an  equivalent  one  of  the  other.  Thus  to  negative 
a  motion  to  strike  out  would  be  equivalent  to  a 
motion  to  insert  words  which  would  make  the  words 
the  assembly  refused  to  strike  out  of  no  effect  and 
would  be  considering  an  amendment  the  substance 
of  which  had  been  before  proposed.  It  is  evident 
that  this  would  be  an  infringement  of  the  general 
rule  that  what  has  once  been  considered  cannot  again 
be  considered.  The  motion  to  reconsider  has  the 
effect  of  avoiding  the  infraction  of  the  rule  and,  at 
the  same  time,  giving  opportunity  for  further  discus- 
sion. 

The  value  of  the  motion  to  reconsider  cannot  be 
too  highly  esteemed.  The  final  action  of  an  assem- 
bly in  the  light  of  certain  developments  may  become 
both  embarrassing  and  highly  dangerous  to  the 
assembly  itself.  The  work  of  a  legislative  body  may 
be  wrong  in  principle  notwithstanding  the  care  which 
may  have  been  taken.  The  corrective  power  of  the 


5<D2       A    PRACTICAL    BOOK    FOR    PRACTICAL    PEOPLE. 

motion  to  reconsider  is  so  very  valuable  that  the 
American  system  of  parliamentary  practice  has  care- 
fully retained  it. 

The  use  of  the  motion  is  not  restricted  to  any 
particular  condition  that  may  arise.  It  is  practically 
unlimited  in  its  scope  and  is  only  circumscribed  by 
the  one  who  may  use  it. 

A  motion  to  reconsider  must  be  made  by  one  who 
has  voted  favorably  for  the  passage  of  the  resolu- 
tion to  be  reconsidered.  It  is  upon  the  generally 
accepted  rule  that  if  no  person  of  the  favoring  party 
desires  the  reconsideration,  it  would  be  useless  for 
one  of  the  opposing  party  to  attempt  a  reconsidera- 
tion. If  the  presiding  officer  does  not  know  that 
the  mover  is  of  the  party  favorable  to  the  original 
motion,  he  may  inquire  whether  he  had  voted  for  the 
proposition  originally. 

The  practice  that  has  obtained  requires  that  the 
motion  for  reconsideration  shall  be  made  on  the  same 
day  on  which  the  motion  was  originally  disposed  of, 
but  the  general  rule  is  to  permit  it  to  be  moved  also 
during  the  session  next  following.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  motion  be  considered  the  day  it  is 
moved. 

The  motion  may  be  made  on  the  day  permitted  by 
the  rules,  and  its  consideration  may  be  deferred  till 
some  future  time.  Whenever  a  motion  to  reconsider 
shall  have  been  carried,  it  brings  the  whole  matter 
up  for  discussion.  If,  for  instance,  an  amendment 
shall  have  been  decided  upon,  a  motion  to  recon- 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  503 

sider,  if  adopted,  brings  the  amendment  before  the 
assembly.  If  the  main  question  shall  have  been 
adopted,  the  motion  to  reconsider  brings  up  all  the 
business  which  belonged  to  the  question  in  its 
original  condition. 

There  are  certain  limitations  to  the  motion  to  re- 
consider. When  once  a  motion  has  been  recon- 
sidered, it  cannot  be  again  reconsidered.  A  motion 
to  reconsider  cannot  be  reconsidered,  neither  can  a 
motion  to  adjourn,  the  affirmative  Vote  to  lay  on  the 
table,  or  to  suspend  the  rules.  If  the  assembly  shall 
have  acted  upon  the  requirements  of  a  motion  which 
it  has  adopted,  it  cannot  reconsider  its  action. 

The  motion  to  reconsider  is  not  amendable,  but  is 
debatable  whenever  the  question  it  seeks  to  reopen 
is  debatable.  Whatever  motions  of  a  subsidiary 
character  that  are  applicable  to  any  other  motion  are 
applicable  to  this.  It  is  a  common  practice  in  legis- 
lative bodies  to  move  to  reconsider  the  vote  by  which 
a  bill  shall  have  been  passed  and  then  to  lay  the  mo- 
tion on  the  table.  The  affirmative  of  the  last 
motion  has  the  effect  of  finally  disposing  of  any 
attempts  to  again  bring  up  the  matter.  It  is  a 
method  of  killing  the  bill.  Whenever  debatable, 
the  previous  question  can  be  used  to  suppress  debate 
and  bring  a  vote  at  once. 

SUMMARY. 

The  appended  table  will  show  the  relations  of  all 
possible  motions  to  the  main  question.  The  main 


504   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

question  when  pending,  as  we  have  shown,  may  be 
influenced  by  two  classes  of  questions — subsidiary 
and  incidental.  The  table  shows  their  subdivisions 
and  their  relative  importance  to  each  other  is  shown 
in  order,  It  will  be  observed  that  there  are  four 
orders  of  subsidiary  questions.  Each  of  superior 
precedence  in  the  order  named.  Those  of  the  same 
order  have  no  precedence  one  over  the  other. 

Privileged  motions,  as  the  name  implies,  have  a 
privilege  over  any  other  business  ;  but  when  they  be- 
come the  main  question,  the  subsidiary  and  incidental 
motions  have  an  application  to  its  disposition. 

Whenever  the  main  question  becomes  affected 
by  the  raising  of  any  of  the  motions  set  forth 
in  the  table,  the  precedence  of  the  motion  is 
in  the  order  set  opposite.  The  rule  for  the 
guidance  of  any  presiding  officer  is  that  what- 
ever motion  or  question  has  right  of  way  and  is  re- 
lated to  the  main  question  must  first  be  decided. 
Thus,  for  instance,  the  main  question  being  before 
an  assembly,  an  amendment  might  be  proposed  to 
which  another  amendment  could  be  offered.  The 
motion  to  lay  on  the  table  could  then  be  moved; 
another  member  might  raise  a  point  of  order  on  the 
propriety  of  the  motion  to  lay  on  the  table  ;  a  ques- 
tion of  general  or  special  privilege  could  be  raised 
and  finally  a  motion  to  adjourn  could  be  made.  All 
these  could  be  pending  at  once  and  must  be  de- 
cided in  the  reverse  order  of  their  proposal.  It  will 
be  seen  how,  under  such  an  arrangement,  all  of  which 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW. 


505 


is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  modern  parliamentary 
practice,  the  main  question  might  not  reach  a  deter- 
mination until  some  time  had  elapsed  after  its  pro- 
posal. A  reference  to  the  table  will  show  how  far 
all  are  debatable  and  amendable. 


MOTIONS  :  THEIR  PRECEDENCE  AND  VALUE. 


I.  To  adjourn; 

Not  debatable,  nor  amendable  and  of 

highest  privilege. 
II.  To  adjourn  to  a  certain  day: 

Debatable  and  amendable.  If  time 
not  previously  fixed  with  superior 
precedence  over  the  preceding. 

III.  To  take  a  recess: 

Debatable  and  amendable,  unless  time 
has  been  fixed,  when  it  becomes  like 
a  motion  to  adjourn. 

IV.  Questions  of  general  privilege: 

Of  privilege  over  all  others. 
V.  Questions  of  personal  privilege: 

Of  privilege  over  all  others  except 
general  privilege. 


PRIVILEGED  MOTIONS: 
Always  in  order. 


SUBSIDIARY  MOTIONS: 
Have      reference      to- 
main  question. 


I.  Questions  of  consideration: 

Neither  debatable  nor  amendable. 
II.  To  lay  on  the  table: 

Neither  debatable  nor  amendable. 
'To  postpone  to  a  certain  day. 
Debatable  and  amendable. 
Previous  question: 

Neither  debatabte  nor  amendable. 


III.    \ 


To  postpone  indefinitely: 


Not  amendable;  debatable  only  on 

the  main  question. 
To  commit: 

Debatable  and  amendable. 
IV.  To  amend: 

Debatable  and  amendable. 


f     I.  Questions  of  order.        ~\ 

INCIDENTAL  QUESTIONS:      II.  Reading  of  papers.         I  Not  amendable 
Have  reference  to  the)  III.  Withdrawing  a  motion.  [    nor  debatable, 
main  and  subsidiary  )  IV.   Suspension  of  rules.       J 
motions.  V.   Division.  [  Amendable 

LVI.  Ways  of  consideration,  f        only. 


506     A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

DEBATE. 

The  sole  object  of  debate  is  to  arrive  at  a  com- 
mon opinion  upon  the  subject  in  hand.  This  can  be 
obtained  by  an  interchange  of  opinions.  It  is  evident 
that  the  mover  of  a  motion  may  suggest  that  which 
is  not  approved  by  all  present.  The  very  moment 
that  a  subject  is  suggested,  that  moment  a  division  of 
the  assembly  may  become  an  existing  consequent.  All 
may  not  express  themselves.  There  may  be  reasons 
which  cause  no  debate  and  the  subject  may  receive 
the  approval  of  all  present.  If  the  matter  be  very 
important,  the  debate  represents  the  contest  of  those 
who  favor  the  mover  and  those  who  are  opposed.  It 
is  evident  that  the  discussion  will  involve  a  deliberate 
judgment  of  all  present  upon  those  who  may  oppose, 
as  well  as  those  who  may  favor  the  proposition.  The 
aim  of  the  debate  is  to  cause  those  who  may  disagree 
to  the  proposition  to  agree  ;  and  this  is  to  be  effected 
by  argument.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  course 
of  debate  the  object  is  not  the  motives  of  the  mover, 
but  the  subject-matter  under  debate  ;  and  while  per- 
sonal criticism  is  foun-d  to  be  the  outgrowth  of  any 
debate,  there  are  certain  things  which  those  who  de- 
bate are  under  obligation  to  observe. 

As  to  the  member  :  He  is  to  be  in  order;  he  has 
no  right  to  talk  while  another  has  the  floor ;  he  must 
be  silent  and  attentive  ;  engage  in  no  other  business; 
throw  nothing  .about  the  room ;  refrain  from  passing 
between  the  member  speaking  and  the  presiding 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  507 

officer ;  and  'without  the  consent  of  the  speaker, 
refrain  from  interrupting  him  while  speaking. 

The  member  when  speaking  must  mention  no  other 
member's  name,  but  must  refer  to  him  with  courtesy 
and  dignity  by  mentioning  him  as  "  the  gentleman 
who  last  spoke  "or  "as  the  honorable  gentleman  from," 
giving  the  State  or  district  from  whence  he  comes.  In 
legislative  assemblies,  such  a  designation  is  possible, 
but  in  deliberative  bodies  of  other  character,  he  must 
be  identified  only  as  the  gentleman  having  performed 
some  act  which  the  reference  shall  clearly  point  him 
out  as  the  one  referred  to.  Nor  shall  the  member 
speaking  use  terms  which  are  highly  improper  be- 
cause of  their  suggestiveness  or  because  they  charge 
a  fellow  member  with  motives  of  impropriety  and  dis- 
honor. In  speaking,  the  member  shall  always  keep 
in  mind  that  it  is  the  subject-matter  of  the  proposi- 
tion that  is  to  be  discussed  and  not  the  persons. 
Hence  the  old  rule,  "  Avoid  personalities  in  debate  " 
becomes  a  very  excellent  one.  It  is  very  evident  that 
common  sense,  common  fairness  and  common  decency 
are  the  three  superlative  requirements  of  successful 
debate  ;  while  the  sole  object  of  all  debate  is  to  win 
adherents  to  the  speaker's  view  of  the  question  at 
issue. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  presiding  officer  per  se 
has  no  right  to  participate  in  debate.  His  connec- 
tion is  solely  to  control  the  debate  so  that  it  shall 
proceed  on  orderly  lines  and  fulfil  the  general  as  well 
as  implied  rules  of  decorum.  Whenever  a  motion 


508   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

has  been  properly  moved,  seconded  and  restated  by 
the  Chair,  it  is  ready  for  debate.  Whoever  shall 
first  rise  is  entitled  to  the  floor.  Where  the  subject 
is  important,  it  is  often  the  case  that  many  may  rise. 
It  is  a  question  for  the  presiding  officer  to  decide  to 
whom  he  shall  award  the  floor.  The  practice  has 
grown,  as  already  stated,  to  regard  the  presiding 
officer's  decision  as  final.  He  is  actuated  by  but  one 
object.  Fairness  and  impartiality  are  the  governing 
motives  in  all  his  decisions.  He  may  have  heard 
Mr.  A.  first.  He  may  have  seen  Mr.  B.  first,  and 
Mr.  C.,  the  mover  of  the  motion,  may  have  been  the 
last  to  have  risen  and  to  have  been  heard,  yet  he 
awards  to  floor  to  Mr.  C.  The  basis  of  such  a  de- 
cision, and  it  is  founded  on  a  very  good  principle, 
and  one  generally  accepted  —  that  the  mover  being 
the  one  who  is  most  interested  in  the  proposition 
should  be  the  one  to  first  explain  why  the  action 
which  it  contemplates  is  desired.  When  the  mover 
does  not  desire  to  speak,  the  presiding  officer  awards 
the  floor  to  whomsoever  he  will,  basing  his  decision 
on  the  one  whom  he  shall  see  first  rise.  In  the  suc- 
ceeding awards  of  the  floor  he  shall  alternate  be- 

o 

tween  those  who  favor  and  those  who  oppose  the 
proposition  under  discussion,  and  thus  bring  about 
the  fullest  elucidation  of  the  subject.  When  thus 
awarded  the  floor,  the  member's  remarks  must  be 
upon  the  subject  at  issue.  If  the  main  question  is 
under  discussion,  all  his  remarks  ought  to  be  upon 
that  subject.  If  it  be  the  amendment,  then  upon 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  509 

whatever  the  amendment  proposes.  So  long  as  the 
subject  in  hand  is  being  treated  by  the  member 
speaking,  just  so  long  is  he  secure  in  his  possession 
of  the  floor.  Any  remarks  which  are  not  relevant  to 
the  discussion  are  out  of  order,  and  for  their  utter- 
ance he  may  be  compelled  to  take  his  seat  on  a  tech- 
nical point  of  order  raised  by  a  fellow  member,  or  by 
the  command  of  the  presiding  officer  to  be  in  order. 

Under  certain  conditions,  and  when  certain  motions 
are  pending,  the  widest  latitude  may  come  into  the 
debate.  It  would  be  difficult  to  state  here  just  what 
constitutes  a  member  out  of  order  when  in  debate. 
Human  passions,  desire  to  win  in  any  proposed 
action,  bias  of  opinion  are  elements  against  which 
the  presiding  officer  has  to  contend.  He  controls 
the  debate  as  to  subject  matter,  and  where  he  pos- 
sesses judgment,  common  sense  and  decision,  the 
debate  will  bring  out  what  it  is  desirous  the  assembly 
in  question  shall  know. 

The  prolongation  of  the  debate,  all  things  being 
equal  and  no  motions  having  been  made  to  defer 
or  suppress  it,  is  to  that  extent  when  all  shall  have 
spoken  either  in  favor  or  to  the  contrary.  It  is  the 
right  of  every  member  to  ventilate  his  views  upon  it. 
Once  speaking  upon  the  question  is  the  acknowl- 
edge right ;  but  the  question  of  how  many  more 
times  and  how  much  time  are  questions  which  every 
assembly  must  regulate  for  itself. 

Generally  a  member  may  speak  twice  on  a  subject 
in  the  ordinary  deliberative  bodies,  and  may  speak 


5IO   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

again,  if  all  have  spoken  who  wish.  In  the  U.  S. 
House  of  Representatives,  the  member  is  restricted 
to  but  one  speech  on  a  subject.  It  will  be  seen  to 
be  a  wise  precaution  in  any  deliberative  assembly 
to  restrict  the  number  and  length  of  time  which  any 
member  may  speak. 

The  question  of  whether  a  member  is  in  order 
maybe  largely  controlled  by  his  manner  of  speaking. 
The  language  may  be  uttered  in  such  a  tone  of  voice 
as  to  be  highly  disrespectful  to  those  present,  while 
the  subject-matter  may  be  entirely  pertinent  to  the 
question,  but  the  insinuations  which  may  lurk  be- 
neath may  reflect  very  seriously  upon  the  character 
of  some  person  present.  Such  a  circumstance  would 
be  a  violation  of  the  dignity  of  the  assembly  and 
would  be  out  of  order.  Under  such  circumstance 
the  member  could  be  deprived  of  the  floor  by  a 
point  of  order,  or  by  demanding  that  the  words  be 
taken  down.  In  small  assemblies,  not  of  a  quasi 
political  or  legislative  character,  such  a  proceeding 
is  not  of  general  usage.  The  practice  of  taking  down 
word's,  obtains  in  legislative  bodies,  and  a  simple 
point  of  order  brings  about  the  needed  remedy. 

Whenever,  in  the  progress  of  debate,  the  presid- 
ing officer  shall  rise,  it  is  the  mark  of  respect  for  all 
other  persons  to  seat  themselves.  This  is  but  a 
mark  of  courtesy  to  the  office.  A  requirement  of 
this  sort  does  not  permit  the  presiding  officer  to 
cause  a  member  who  has  the  floor  to  desist  for  his 
benefit.  In  the  course  of  debate  a  member  may  ob- 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  5  I  I 

tain  the  floor,  not  for  the  purpose  of  debate,  but  to 
propound  an  inquiry.  These  inquiries  are  termed, 
as  already  stated,  parliamentary  inquiries  or  points 
of  information.  They  have  no  special  privilege,  but 
may  be  addressed  to  the  presiding  officer  whenever  the 
member  so  desiring  to  raise  one,  can  obtain  the  floor. 
Their  purpose  is  to  elucidate  information  upon  some 
subject  in  course  of  the  debate  germane  to  the  sub- 
ject, or  to  obtain  information  as  to  the  status  of 
some  subsidiary  or  other  motion  under  process  of 
adjustment,  or  to  produce  action  which  shall  dispose 
of  a  matter  under  discussion.  They  are  addressed 
to  the  presiding  officer  and  by  him  answered.  They 
are  purely  for  information  and  have  no  binding  force 
on  the  assembly  unless  the  information  thus  ob- 
tained is  put  into  action  by  the  member.  It  is  then 
subject  to  the  rules  which  obtain  in  such  a  case. 

A  member  having  obtained  possession  of  the  floor 
has  it  as  an  absolute  possession  so  long  as  he  is  in 
order.  When  he  shall  have  concluded  his  remarks 
his  possession  of  the  floor  ceases.  He  may,  however, 
temporarily  yield  the  floor  for  an  inquiry  addressed 
to  himself,  or  for  a  motion  to  adjourn,  or  to  take  a 
recess.  His  possession  of  the  floor  is  not  invalidated. 
If  the  assembly  should  adjourn  his  position  would 
be  the  same  when  the  business  thus  interrupted 
should  again  come  up  for  discussion.  These  are  the 
only  conditions  under  which  he  may  yield  the  floor 
and  be  entitled  to  its  possession  again  without 
further  effort  on  his  part. 


512   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Whenever,  in  the  course  of  debate,  the  order  shall 
become  so  objectionable  that  the  presiding  officer 
must  call  the  assembly  to  order,  all  business  ceases 
at  once.  If  a  member  has  the  floor  he  must  sit 
down,  and  no  further  business  is  done  until  the  as- 
sembly shall  be  in  order,  when  the  member  may 
proceed.  It  may  be  stated,  as  a  general  rule,  that 
when  a  member  speaking  shall  be  called  to  order,  he 
is  out  of  order  until  he  shall  take  his  seat  and  the 
question  of  his  disorder  shall  have  been  settled.  In 
debate,  a  member's  disorder  in  speech,  when 
called  to  the  presiding  officer's  attention,  does  not 
deprive  him  of  the  floor,  unless  he  shall  persist  in 
remarks  of  an  irrelevant  character. 

The  right  of  any  assembly  to  punish  its  members 
for  disorderly  and  highly  improper  behavior  in  both 
language  and  manner  is  regarded  as  its  prerogative. 
All  rules  for  the  guidance  of  any  deliberative  body 
should  be  made  with  such  an  end  in  view. 

VOTING. 

The  debate  having  concluded,  the  decision  of  the 
question  is  at  hand.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  vote. 
The  assembly,  in  possession  of  the  question  by  reason 
of  there  statement  by  the  Chair,  may  show  its  anxiety 
to  vote  by  calling  "  Question,"  in  response  to  the  in- 
quiry of  the  presiding  officer,  '' Is  there  anything  to 
be  said  on  the  question  ?"  It  is  of  frequent  occur- 
rence that  when  a  question  shall  have  been  debated 
and  the  presiding  officer  may  conclude  that  further 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  513 

discussion  is  not  desired,  because  no  one  offers  to 
debate,  and  asks,  "  Is  there  anything  further  to  be 
said  on  the  question  ?"  Such  a  question  is  in  the 
nature  of  a  warning  that  the  vote  is  about  to  be 
taken.  He  may,  if  he  chose,  order  the  main  ques- 
tion reread,  or  if  it  be  an  amendment,  order  the  same 
to  be  read  in  conjunction  with  the  main  question.  It 
is  evident  that  the  right  to  propose  business  and  to 
debate  upon  such  propositions  carries  with  it  the 
right  to  vote.  All  persons  thus  entitled  are  under 
obligation  to  vote.  The  mere  fact  of  physical  pres- 
ence carries  with  it  the  right  of  choice,  and  unless 
the  member  be  excused  by  the  presiding  officer  or 
the  assembly,  he  must  vote.  > 

The  methods  of  voting  are  various  and,  in  general, 
they  may  be  stated  thus : 
I.   By  sound. 
II.  By  rising  or  show  of  hands. 

III.   By  yeas  and  nays. 

Whenever  an  assembly  is  ready  to  vote  the  presid- 
ing officer  says  :  "  Those  who  favor  the  question  (or 
amendment)  please  say  aye."  Then  those  who  favor 
the  question  at  issue  respond  by  saying,  "Aye."  The 
presiding  officer  then  puts  the  negative  side  in  the 
same  manner  and  those  who  are  opposed  say,  "  No." 
By  the  volume  of  tone,  he  judges  which  prevails  and 
says: "  The  ayes  have  it,"  if  by  the  tone  of  those  favor- 
able, he  determines  more  of  those  present  said  "  aye" 
than  said  "no."  He  then  adds,  "The  question  is  car- 
ried." This  formula  of  words  varies  with  differing 
33 


514   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

presiding  officers  and  the  general  intent  is  to  allow 
sufficient  time  between  the  taking  of  those  who  favor 
and  those  who  oppose  to  enable  the  reply  to  be  given 
fully  and  completely.  This  is  voting  by  sound  or 
viva  voce,  and  is  the  usual  method  of  voting. 

If,  however,  when  announcing  the  decision  he  may 
be  in  doubt  or  any  member  shall  demand  a  count, 
then  the  vote  is  taken  either  by  rising  or  by  showing 
hands. 

In  such  a  case  the  presiding  officer  says,  "Those 
who  favor  rise,"  or  he  may  say,  "  Those  who  favor 
raise  your  hand."  Then  those  who  favor  rise  and 
remain  standing  until  counted,  which  the  Chair  pro- 
ceeds to  do.  Having  counted  them,  he  requests 
them  to  be  seated.  He  then  addresses  the  same 
question  in  proper  form  to  those  who  are  opposed. 
They  rise  and  the  presiding  officer  proceeds  to  count, 
which  fact  having  been  accomplished,  he  requests 
them  to  be  seated.  He  then  announces  the  result  and 
decides  the  passage  of  the  motion,  if  more  rise  who 
were  favorable;  the  failure,  if  the  opposite  be  true. 

The  methods  of  effecting  this  vote  on  a  motion  are 
various.  In  some  cases  those  who  favor  are  required 
to  stand  on  one  side  of  the  room,  while  those  who 
oppose  on  the  other  side.  In  some  other  cases  two 
tellers  are  appointed  who,  taking  a  station  opposite 
each  other,  permit  all  those  who  favor  the  motion  to 
rpass  between  them  in  one  direction  and  then  those 
who  are  opposed  in  an  opposite  direction.  The  tell- 
ers count  those  who  thus  pass,  and  comparing  their 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  515 

results,  if  they  agree,  report  to  the  presiding  officer, 
who  in  turn  announces  the  result  to  the  assembly. 

In  bodies  of  a  legislative  character  where  a  record 
of  votes  is  kept,  the  system  of  voting  by  yeas  and 
nays  obtains.  It  can  be  demanded  by  any  member, 
and  is  ordered  if  a  majority  concur.  When  so  ordered 
the  clerk  calls  each  member's  name,  who  must  vote 
if  present  unless  excused  by  the  assembly.  The  yea 
or  nay  reply  of  the  member  is  entered  in  the  appro- 
priate column  opposite  his  name  on  the  paper  from 
which  the  clerk  is  reading  the  names.  When  all  the 
names  are  called,  the  clerk  recalls  the  names  of  those 
who  have  failed  to  reply.  On  the  conclusion  of  this 
he  reads  the  names  of  those  who  have  voted  "  yea  " 
and  those  who  have  voted  "  nay  "  and  also  the  list  of 
those  who  are  absent,  and  reports  the  total  result  to 
the  presiding' officer,  who  thereupon  declares  the  re- 
sult. A  call  of  the  yeas  and  nays  once  begun  cannot 
be  interrupted  and  must  proceed  to  a  finish. 

The  right  of  the  presiding  officer  to  vote  when  a 
member  of  the  body  is  unquestioned.  If,  however, 
he  be  not  a  member  his  privilege  to  vote  obtains 
when  there  is  a  tie.  Such  a  vote  on  his  part  is  known 
as  the  casting  vote.  He  may  refrain  from  voting,  in 
which  case  the  motion  is  lost. 

Until  the  result  of  a  vote  is  decided,  that  is  until 
the  negative  of  a  question  is  taken  by  the  presiding 
officer,  the  question  is  still  open  for  amendment  and 
debate.  The  negative  taken,  the  only  method  of  re- 
opening the  subject  is  by  reconsideration. 


516  A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE, 

ELECTIONS. 

The  selection  of  the  officers  of  any  deliberative 
body  in  its  temporary  organization  is  usually  by  the 
viva  voce  method  of  choice.  When,  however,  the  or- 
ganization is  perfected  and  its  procedure  is  adopted, 
the  election  is  by  ballot. 

The  election  of  officers,  unless  provided  for  by  the 
order  of  business,  is  arranged  for  by  a  formal  motion 
to  proceed  to  an  election.  The  affirmative  of  this 
motion  presents  the  whole  matter  of  election  to  the 
disposal  of  the  assembly.  It  is  always  proper  to  take 
the  highest  office  first,  the  presiding  officer  calling 
for  nominations  for  that  office.  The  names  having 
been  presented  and  seconded,  though  this  latter  mat- 
ter is  one  of  custom  rather  than  rule,  the  Chair  names 
two  or  more  persons  who  act  as  tellers.  These  per- 
sons supervise  the  election,  count  the  ballots  and  re- 
port the  result  to  the  presiding  officer. 

When  the  ballots  have  all  been  cast,  the  presiding 
officer  gives  warning  of  the  closing  of  the  polls,  and 
then  declares  them  closed.  The  report  of  the  tellers 
must  state  the  number  of  ballots  cast,  the  number 
necessary  to  a  choice,  which  must  be  a  majority,  the 
names  of  those  balloted  for  and  the  number  each 
received. 

The  person  who  receives  the  majority,  if  there  be 
but  one,  is  declared  elected  by  the  presiding  officer. 
In  the  event  of  no  person  receiving  a  majority,  the 
balloting  must  be  repeated  in  like  manner  till  an 
election  shall  be  had. 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  517 

It  is  the  right  of  each  member  to  vote  once  in  each 
balloting.  He  is  not  restricted  in  his  choice,  but 
usually  those  nominated  are  the  ones  for  whom  the 
ballots  should  be  cast. 

In  some  assemblies  a  nominating  committee  is  ap- 
pointed which  reports  to  the  assembly  the  names  of 
those  whom  it  regards  as  suitable  for  the  offices  to 
be  filled.  The  report  becomes  subject  to  the  rules 
of  the  assembly  and  maybe  amended  or  disagreed  to 
or  recommitted.  When  adopted,  it  becomes  the  ac- 
tion of  the  assembly  and  the  officers  so  nominated 
are  elected. 

Frequently  when  but  one  nomination  is  made, 
some  person  is,  by  motion,  authorized  to  cast  a 
unanimous  ballot  for  the  person  so  nominated.  The 
unanimous  passage  of  this  motion  delegates  the 
power  of  ballot  to  the  one  so  appointed.  This  for- 
mal act  of  vote  elects  the  nominee  to  the  office. 

The  principle  of  all  elections,  as,  indeed,  it  is  the 
principle  of  all  deliberative  bodies,  is  that  a  majority 
shall  denote  the  will  of  the  assembly. 

COMMITTEES. 

Whenever  a  deliberative  body  desires  information 
upon  a  subject,  which,  because  of  its  nature,  it  can- 
not readily  obtain  in  its  capacity  as  an  assembly,  it 
delegates  its  work  to  a  portion  of  its  membership. 
The  portion  of  the  assembly  thus  charged  with  the 
duty  of  assisting  the  main  body  is  called  a  committee. 
It  will  be  seen  that  in  large  assemblies,  or  even  in 


518   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

any  kind  of  a  delibrative  body,  there  are  questions 
of  importance  which  could  not  be  readily  investi- 
gated by  the  whole  assembly,  except  at  the  expense 
of  great  losses  of  time.  There  would  be  other  mat- 
ters which  ought  to  occupy  the  assembly's  time.  The 
delegation  of  this  work  of  investigation  insures  a 
thoroughness  which  could  not  possibly  come  with 
the  original  body.  This  process  of  referring  a  sub- 
ject to  a  committee  secures  when  the  subject  shall 
again  come  up  for  discussion  and  possible  passage, 
a  few  persons  whose  knowledge  of  the  subject  at 
issue  would  be  so  complete  that  many  errors  of  judg- 
ment could  then  be  avoided.  Some  one  has  wisely 
said,  "What  is  everbody's  business  is  nobody's  busi- 
ness." The  creation  of  a  committee  is  in  order  that 
the  business  in  hand  may  be  somebody's  business. 

Every  deliberative  body  may  possess  committees 
of  two  kinds,  standing  and  special.  As  their  names 
signify,  they  are  either  those  which  continue  during 
a  stated  interval  or  are  of  temporary  and  specific 
designation. 

In  all  legislative  bodies  these  standing  committees 
are  provided  for  by  the  rules,  and  their  specific 
dnties  are  carefully  outlined.  The  special  commit- 
tees are  created  as  the  occasion  may  demand.  In 
addition  to  these,  there  are  committees  which  exist 
because  of  the  intimate  relations  existing  between 
the  upper  and  lower  houses  of  legislation.  These 
are  called  joint  and  conference  committees. 

A  committee  which  has  a  peculiar  relation  to  the 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  519 

legislative  body  to  which  it  belongs  is  called  the 
Committee  of  the  Whole,  and  as  its  name  signifies, 
is  the  entire  legislative  body.  It  is  of  curious  origin 
and  relates  to  that  time  in  English  history  when  the 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  being  the  ally  of 
an  arbitrary  king,  sought  to  reveal  whatever  the 
members  said  that  might  be  derogatory  to  the  mon- 
arch. This  form  of  committee  enabled  the  House 
to  dismiss  the  speaker  from  its  presence,  and  under 
the  presidency  of  one  of  its  own  members,  transact 
its  business  in  secrecy. 

A  standing  committee  performs  the  duties  which 
are  delegated  to  it  by  the  rules,  and  it  is  usual  to 
refer  all  matters  which  belong  to  the  subject  over 
which  it  has  charge  to  it  for  investigation  and  report. 

Special  committees  are  the  creation  of  the  assem- 
bly to  satisfy  special  needs.  Thus,  a  subject  may  be 
proposed  which  cannot  be  investigated  by  any  stand- 
ing committee.  In  order  to  such  an  end,  a  special 
committee  is  created. 

All  committees  are  the  servants  of  the  assembly 
proper.  They  exist  by  its  command  and  perform 
only  such  work  as  the  assembly  directs.  The  ap- 
pointment of  a  committee  may  be  the  result  of  one 
of  several  methods.  It  may  be  given  absolute  power 
not  only  to  investigate  and  report,  but  it  may  be 
required  to  effect  the  action  of  the  assembly  itself. 
The  work  of  a  committee  is  only  limited  by  its  in- 
structions. If  these  are  not  sufficient  to  meet  the 
demands  of  the  investigation  committed  to  its  care, 


52O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  assembly  can  give  a  power  equal  to  whatever 
may  be  the  possession  of  the  assembly  itself. 
Hence  investigating  committees  of  a  legislative  body 
have  power  to  summon  witnesses  and  to  punish  in  the 
event  of  a  refusal  to  do  what  the  committee  directs. 

The  appointment  of  a  committee  is  either  by  the 
presiding  officer,  by  resolution,  by  vote  on  nomina- 
tion, or  by  ballot. 

Whenever  a  member  desires  a  committee  ap- 
pointed, he  may  specify  in  his  motion  either  the 
number  and  the  manner  of  selection,  or  both.  He 
may  also  define  the  duties  which  he  desires  the  com- 
mittee  to  perform. 

Whenever  no  such  provision  obtains,  the  assem- 
bly must  settle  the  matter  both  as  to  the  number 
and  manner  of  selection. 

The  number  is  usually  an  odd  number,  and  wisely 
so,  in  order  that  there  may  be  a  majority  either  one 
way  or  the  other  in  its  final  judgment.  When  the 
appointment  is  left  either  by  consent  or  direction  to 
the  presiding  officer,  he,  having  no  right  to  perform 
this  task  unless  so  directed,  appoints  the  committee, 
exercising  his  judgment  as  to  whom  shall  be  the 
members.  It  has  become  the  custom  for  the  mover 
and  seconder  of  a  motion  to  be  made  members  of 
the  committee.  This  is  not  obligatory  upon  the  pre- 
siding officer.  His  judgment  is  relied  upon  in  such 
a  matter.  In  apolitical  assembly  he  is  expected  to 
appoint  a  majority  from  the  prevailing  party  senti- 
ment. The  same  is  true  of  a  legislative  body.  In 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  52  I 

other  assemblies,  those  favorable  to  the  matter  of 
having  the  subject  thus  investigated  by  committee, 
are  preferred  to  those  who  oppose  upon  the  general 
theory  that  those  who  are  opposed  to  a  measure 
could  not  give  it  a  favorable  consideration,  and  thus 
a  complete  investigation  is  insured  when  committed 
to  the  hands  of  its  friends. 

In  the  lower  houses  of  legislation,  the  speaker  al- 
ways appoints  the  standing  committees ;  but  in  the 
upper  houses  the  presiding  officer,  not  being  a  mem- 
ber, the  selection  of  the  committee  is  made  either  by 
the  president  pro  tern,  or  by  the  house  itself. 

Should  the  resolution  state  the  names  of  those 
who  are  to  constitute  the  committee,  then  the  pas- 
sage of  the  resolution  creates  the  committee.  If  the 
resolution  leaves  the  names  and  number  blank,  then 
it  is  the  province  of  the  assembly,  on  the  passage  of 
the  resolution  creating  the  committee,  to  proceed  to 
nominate  those  who  are  to  serve  on  the  committee. 
The  members  are  nominated  by  some  fellow  mem- 
ber and  when  so  nominated  the  presiding  officer  pre- 
sents each  name  for  vote  by  the  entire  assembly.  It 
may  be  here  stated  that  any  one  of  these  methods 
subserves  the  purpose  and  neither  may  be  said  to 
possess  any  special  advantage.  The  appointment  of 
a  committee  by  ballot  is  open  to  the  objection  of  the 
time  which  it  must  consume.  As  its  name  implies,  it 
is  by  formal  ballot.  Each  name  or  a  set  of  names 
being  voted  for  at  one  time. 

The  committee  appointed,  the  next  proceeding  is 


522   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

to  begin  the  task  which  is  set  for  it  to  perform.  The 
preliminary  work  requires  organization.  For  this 
purpose  it  must  have  a  chairman.  Usually  the  person 
first  named  acts  as  chairman,  though  the  assembly 
may  designate  the  chairman  or  the  committee  may 
elect  its  own.  If  the  rules  provide  for  a  clerk,  it  is 
ready  for  business  whenever  it  meets.  The  absence 
of  a  provision  for  a  clerk  requires  that  a  member  of 
the  committee  shall  act  as  recording  officer.  The 
times  and  places  of  meeting  are  the  province  of  the 
committee,  although  this  may  be  left  to  the  chairman. 
No  committee  can  be  said  to  be  in  session  unless  every 
member  has  been  notified  of  the  time  and  place  of 
meeting,  and  no  business  can  properly  be  performed 
unless  a  quorum  of  the  committee  be  present.  A 
quorum  is  always  a  majority  of  the  committee. 

In  general,  it  may  be  stated  that  whatever  is  in 
order  in  the  assembly  itself  is  in  order  in  the  com- 
mittee. The  same  rules  which  govern  the  assembly 
are  for  the  government  of  the  committee  so  far  as 
they  are  applicable.  Its  officers  perform  similar 
duties  as  in  the  assembly  and  by  the  mouth  of  the 
chairman,  it  communicates  with  it. 

In  the  transaction  of  its  business  it  may  require 
the  views  of  those  who  have  no  connection  with  the 
body  to  which  it  belongs,  and  hence  it  may  hold 
public  meetings  at  which  it  receives  the  needed  ad- 
vice and  information.  In  all  ordinary  assemblies  the 
committees  are  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  in  giving 
more  specific  knowledge.  If  a  faulty  resolution  be 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  523 

submitted  to  it,  01  if  it  be  required  to  prepare  a  reso- 
lution, the  subject  matter  is  carefully  gone  over, 
amendments  are  suggested  and  the  best  judgment 
of  the  committee  is  exercised  to  perfect  what  is  sent 
for  correction.  Whatever  papers  are  transmitted  are 
to  be  returned  to  the  custody  of  the  proper  officer  in 
the  same  shape  they  were  received.  A  committee's 
work  is  not  final,  but  only  advisory. 

Whatever  the  conclusion  of  a  committee,  it  is  the 
concensus  of  a  majority.  Those  who  disagree  from 
the  opinion  of  the  majority  have  no  standing  before 
the  parent  body.  It  is  only  by  courtesy  that  they 
can  be  heard  as  such,  and  this  privilege  is  rarely 
refused. 

The  finished  work  of  a  committee  is  called  a 
REPORT.  In  the  process  of  its  deliberations,  it  may 
reach  conclusions  which  may  not  represent  complete 
knowledge  on  the  subject,  but  which  shall  be  such 
as  the  assembly  may  need.  In  such  cases  it  makes 
partial  reports  and  these  are  said  to  denote  progress. 

Reports  are  always  in  writing  and  are  presented 
by  the  chairman.  They  have  always  a  formal  be- 
ginning and  are  addressed  to  the  organization  of 
which  the  committee  is  a  part.  The  following  may 
illustrate : 

'•  Your  committee  to  whom  was  referred  the  subject 
of  bonding  the  town  of  Oakdale,  for  the  benefit  of  a 
fund  to  build  a  new  Town  Hall>  respect/idly  presents 
the  following  report :  " 

After  the  formal  introduction,  follows  the  conclu- 


524   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

sion  which  the  committee  has  reached.  Whoever 
agrees  with  the  conclusions  signs  this  report,  but  such 
a  report  must  be  signed  by  a  majority  of  the  com- 
mittee. 

The  presentation  of  a  report  does  not  necessarily 
require  its  acceptance.  There  is  in  all  assemblies 
a  distinction  between  its  acceptance  and  adoption. 

In  all  legislative  bodies,  the  report  of  a  committee 
when  presented  may  be  prevented  from  being  made 
the  subject  of  comment  or  of  original  action,  by 
raising  the  question  of  consideration.  The  mere 
presentation  of  a  report  is,  in  substance,  like  the 
main  question,  and  by  all  the  methods  of  parliament- 
ary practice  may  be  prevented  from  being  considered. 
In  other  deliberative  bodies,  a  report  may  be 
received  by  formal  motion  to  receive.  When  so 
received  the  work  of  the  committee  is  done.  When 
presented  and  received  it  is  the  property  of  the 
assembly  and  must  be  read.  If  the  assembly  so  de- 
sire, it  may  have  the  minority  report,  if  there  be  one, 
read  as  well.  Whenever  a  report  is  received  it  is  not 
the  action  of  the  body,  nor  does  it  confirm  it,  nor 
does  the  question  of  its  confimation  arise  until  a 
formal  motion  to  adopt  the  report  shall  have  been 
made.  Such  a  motion  opens  up  the  whole  subject 
and  brings  the  report  before  the  assembly  as  a  main 
question,  to  be  treated  accordingly.  The  relation 
which  the  committee  sustains  to  the  report  is  that  of 
being  favorable  to  its  passage.  If  the  assembly 
shall  not  be  satisfied  with  it,  it  may  substitute  the 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  525 

minority  report  for  it,  or  it  may  again  charge  the 
committee  with  its  further  correction.  The  question 
of  whether,  in  the  case  of  a  report  of  a  special  com- 
mittee, its  reception  discharges  the  committee,  the 
writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  it  does.  Its  work  is 
done  if  it  be  a  final  report.  It  is  to  do  a  certain 
work.  That  being  accomplished,  its  work  ceases 
when  the  report  shall  have  been  received,  and  at  that 
moment  it  ceases  to  exist  unless  revived  by  a  motion 
to  recommit.  Hence,  a  motion  to  receive  a  report 
and  discharge  the  committee  is  an  error  as  to  its  last 
provision. 

Whenever  the  report  of  a  committee  shall  contain 
several  paragraphs,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  report 
of  a  committee  on  by-laws,  wherein  the  rules  are  sub- 
mitted in  paragraphs,  it  is  usual  for  the  assembly  to 
consider  the  motion  to  adopt  the  report  in  sections. 
Each  paragraph  being  read  and  adopted,  and  then, 
when  all  the  paragraphs  have  been  adopted,  to  adopt 
the  report  as  a  whole. 

The  use  of  the  Committee  of  the  Whole  is  of 
such  rare  occurrence  in  ordinary  assemblies  that  a 
detailed  discussion  is  out  of  place  here.  Its  use  is 
valuable  in  the  discussion  of  subjects  \vherein  a  wide 
range  of  subjects  is  under  debate. 

As  its  name  implies,  it  is  the  committee  wherein 
the  whole  assembly  acts.  The  difference  being  that 
some  member  present,  on  the  direction  of  the  pre- 
siding officer,  takes  the  chair  and  becomes  the  chair- 
man. The  assembly,  on  motion,  resolves  itself  into 


526   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  Committee  of  the  Whole.  The  difference  in 
procedure  between  the  assembly  and  this  committee 
is  that  the  rules  which  apply  to  the  assembly  apply 
to  the  Committee  of  the  Whole,  except  that,  in  gen- 
eral, a  member  may  speak  as  often  as  he  can  get  the 
floor  and  debate  cannot  be  deferred  or  suppressed 
by  any  of  the  rules  usually  applicable.  The  com- 
mittee cannot  adjourn,  but  when  ready  to  cease  from 
its  labors,  it,  by  formal  motion,  rises  and  reports  to 
the  presiding  officer  by  its  chairman  the  work  which 
it  performed.  Its  report  has  the  same  standing  as 
any  other. 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

In  what  has  preceded,  it  has  been  the  intention  to 
describe  as  fully  as  might  be  the  general  provision  of 
parliamentary  law  as  held  in  the  American  practice 
to  be  the  generally  accepted  usage.  As  in  common 
law,  whatever  is  not  specifically  directed  by  statute 
is  held  to  be  of  binding  force,  so  here  whatever  is 
not  provided  for  by  special  rules,  the  general  parlia- 
mentary practice  is  made  the  basis  of  decision. 

All  deliberative  bodies  provide  a  code  of  rules 
based  upon  the  general  provisions  of  the  parliament- 
ary practice.  In  legislative  bodies,  these  are  known  as 
rules.  In  other  assemblies,  they  are  called  by-laws. 
They  define  specifically  the  rules  for  the  government 
of  the  body  and  set  in  order  the  precedence  of 
motions  of  whatever  character.  They  also  provide 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW.  527 

• 

what  shall  be  the  quorum    and   in  what  order   the 
busin.ess  of  the  assembly  shall  proceed. 

Many  assemblies  may  desire  to  know  an  order  for 
the  transaction  of  their  business  and  what  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  basis  for  any  assembly  is  herewith  given: 

I.  The  calling  to  order  by  the  president  when    a 
quorum  shall  be  present. 

II.  Reading  of  the  minutes  of  the  last  meeting, 
their  correction  and  approval. 

III.  Communications  of  all   sorts,   whether   from 
committees  or  from  those  who  have  a  right  to  inform 
the  assembly  in  this  manner. 

IV.  New  business. 

V.  Unfinished  business :  to    be   taken   up  at    the 
point  discontinued  at  the  last  session. 

VI.  Adjournment.      Always   to   the   next    regular 
meeting  time   unless  by  some  other  arrangement  a 
different  time  is  set. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  takes  in  all  the  possible 
business  which  can  come  before  any*  ordinary 
assembly. 

The  dispatch  of  the  business  under  such  an  ar- 
rangement will  require  that  an  adjustment  of  the 
motions  which  have  privilege  shall  be  effected.  In 
the  table  given,  the  arrangement  is  under  the  opera- 
tions of  general  parliamentary  law. 

The  motions  to  adjourn,  to  lay  on  the  table,  to 
postpone  indefinitely,  the  previous  question,  to  take 
a  recess,  to  commit  and  to  postpone  to  a  certain  day 
are  capable  of  infinite  arrangement. 


528   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

• 

In  the  table  given  their  order  is  as  follows  : 

I.  To  adjourn, 
II.  To  lay  on  the  table. 

III.  The  previous  question. 

IV.  To  postpone  to  a  certain  day. 
V.  To  commit. 

VI.  To  postpone  indefinitely. 

VII.  To  amend. 

It  will  be  found  advisable  in  preparing  a  set  of 
rules  for  the  guidance  of  an  assembly,  to  prepare 
them  with  reference  to  some  standard  work  on 
parlimentary  practice.  If  based  upon  such  a  founda- 
tion, this  becomes  the  final  arbiter  in  case  of  a  dis- 
pute as  to  the  meaning  of  the  rules.  It  is  a  frequent 
usage  for  the  rules  which  obtain  in  the  lower  house 
of  the  State  Legislature  to  be  thus  made  the  basis 
upon  which  the  by-laws  are  prepared.  Special  assem- 
blies require  special  rules,  and  so,  while  this  simple 
treatise  may  give  the  general  practice,  it  can  only  serve 
as  a  guide  to  those  who  desire  to  inform  themselves 
upon  this  vory  wide,  but  none  the  less  useful  subject. 

In  houses  of  legislation,  the  decisions  of  a  compe- 
tent presiding  officer  are  made  the  bases  of  future  de- 
cisions and,  as  remarked  in  the  beginning  of  this 
treatise,  the  power  of  such  a  precedent  in  the  deter- 
mination of  disputed  points,  is  very  strong  indeed. 


Engraved  for  Practical  Book  for  Practical  People. 


THINGS  You  SHOULD  KNOW. 


BY  JAMES  H.  MANNING. 


THIS  is  preeminently  the  business  age.  Never 
before  have  commercial  schemes  and  under- 
takings assumed  such  vast  proportions.  Never  be- 
fore has  the  spirit  of  business  permeated  every 
avenue  and  relation  of  life  as  it  does  to-day. 

Business  is  King,  and  the  man  of  affairs,  is  to-day 
the  moving  figure  on  the  world's  stage. 

He  has  reduced  commercial  interests  to  a  science 
and  has  so  advanced  competition  that  high  pressure 
is  the  rule,  and  unremitting  watchfulness  the  price 
not  only  of  success  but  also  of  self-protection. 

Every  one  is  sooner  or  later  swept  into  relations 
with  this  modern  spirit  of  business. 

The  day  has  gone  by  when  man  or  women  can, 
without  inevitable  disaster,  disregard  the  necessity 
for  sufficient  knowledge  of  how  to  transact  ordinary 
business  affairs. 

The  constantly  enlarging  sphere  of  women  in 
modern  days  is  making  it  increasingly  important  for 
them  as  well  as  for  men,  to  understand  the  forms 
and  the  processes  of  commercial  life. 

In  the  following  pages  the  most  important  and 
34 


53O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  most  commonly  used  of  these  forms  are  given, 
and  in  brief  and  ordinary  language  is  also  given  a 
comprehensive  explanation  of  the  technical  terms 
used  in  commercial  law  and  in  ordinary  business 
affairs,  to  which  is  added  a  chapter  on  the  wrong  use 
of  words.  Among  the  subjects  treated  of  are  bank- 
ing, including  checks  and  promissory  notes,  days  of 
grace  in  the  different  States,  demand,  payments, 
protest,  guaranty  and  the  presumptions  of  law,  part- 
nership, including  the  relations  and  powers  of  part- 
ners, articles  of  partnership  and  dissolution  of  the 
relation.  Special  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
essentials  of  Contracts  and  to  the  requirements  of 
the  Statute  of  Frauds. 

Agency,  special  and  general,  powers  of  attorney, 
wills,  duties  of  executors,  deeds,  and  the  rights  of 
married  women  are  also  important  matters,  which 
are  here  explained.  The  last  mentioned  subject  is 
of  especial  importance  to  women,  and  includes  the 
provisions  of  law  in  force  in  the  several  States  of 
the  Union  in  respect  to  this  subject. 

The  experienced  man  of  affairs  will  find  these 
pages  a  convenient  reference  as  to  many  points 
which  he  is  apt  to  forget,  and  the  novice  will  find 
herein  an  introduction  to  all  the  ordinary  terms  and 
transactions  of  business  life. 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  53! 

COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  FORMS. 

AGENCY. 

"Whatever  business  a  man  may  do,  he  may  employ 
another  man  to  do  for  him."  An  agency  may  exist 
by  Implication,  Verbally,  or  by  Writings. 

By  implication  when  the  acts  and  words  lead 
people  in  general  to  believe  that  the  agency  exists. 

Verbally,  whenever  there  is  only  the  verbal  agree- 
ment between  the  parties.  A  verbal  agency  permits 
the  agent  to  make  a  contract  even  in  cases  where 
the  contract  must  be  in  writing. 

By  writings,  as  notes,  memoranda  or  formal  instru- 
ments under  seal. 

The  authority  conveyed  must  be  equal  to  the 
deed  to  be  performed.  The  instrument  of  agency 
must  be  under  seal  when  the  conveyance  requires  a 
seal.  When  the  business  to  be  transacted  does  not 
require  a  seal,  the  instrument  of  agency  need  not  be 
under  seal. 

Kinds. —  General  agents;  special  agents;  profes- 
sional agents. 

A  general  agent  is  empowered  to  transact  all  the 
business  of  a  particular  kind.  He  may  bind  his  prin- 
cipal, generally,  with  innocent  parties  so  long  as  he 
keeps  within  the  apparent  scope  of  his  authority, 
even  if  he  exceeds  private  instructions. 

A  special  agent  is  one  invested  with  limited  powers 
for  the  performance  of  some  especial  business.  He 
cannot  bind  his  principal  whenever  he  exceeds  his 


532   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

authority.  Who  deals  with  a  special  agent,  deals  at 
his  peril  when  the  agent  passes  the  limit  of  his  power. 

Prof essional agents ;  as  attorneys,  brokers,  captains, 
auctioneers,  factors,  etc.,  are  usually  licensed  by  com- 
petent authority  to  transact  a  particular  kind  of  busi- 
ness. 

They  are  invested  with  ample  power  and  the  law 
holds  them  responsible  for  the  proper  performance 
of  their  duties. 

Liabilities  of  Principal.  —  Private  instructions  to  a 
general  agent  do  not  avoid  the  principal's  liability  to 
innocent  parties.  A  principal  is  responsible  for  fraud 
on  the  part  of  the  agent,  if  committed  while  transact- 
ing his  business.  A  principal  is  not  bound  by  the 
acts  of  a  special  agent  who  exceeds  his  authority.  A 
principal  is  not  generally  liable  for  the  willful  wrong 
done  by  his  agent. 

FORMS  OF  POWERS  OF  ATTORNEY. 
Know  all  men  by  these  presents :  That  I,  A.  B.,  of 

,  have  made,  constituted,  and  appointed,  and 

by  these  presents  do  make,  constitute,  and   appoint 

B.  C.,  of    ,  my  true  and   lawful    attorney,  for 

me  and  in  my  name  and  stead  (state  purpose  for 
which  issued),  giving  and  granting  to  my  said  attor- 
ney by  these  presents,  full  power  and  authority  to  do 
and  perform  all  and  every  act  and  thing  necessary  to 
be  done  in  and  about  the  premises,  as  fully  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  as  I  might  or  could  do  if  per- 
sonally present,  hereby  ratifying  and. confirming  all 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  533 

that  my  said  attorney  shall  lawfully  do  or  cause  to  be 
done  by  virtue  hereof. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand 

and  seal,  this day  of A.  D.  189. . 

A.  B.     [L.  s.] 
Sealed  and  delivered  in  the  presence  of  B.  C. 

Married  women,  lunatics,  and  minors,  in  general, 
are  disqualified  from  appointing  agents,  but  a  mar- 
ried woman  in  the  State  of  New  Ybrk,  if  over 
twenty-one  years,  may  appoint  an  agent  the  same  as 
though  unmarried.  A  minor  may  authorize  an  agent 
to  perform  an  act  that  is  to  his  advantage,  but  not 
that  is  to  his  prejudice. 

DEEDS. 

The  grantor  is  the  person  who  makes  the  convey- 
ance and  the  grantee  is  the  person  who  receives  the 
conveyance. 

A  deed,  being  a  contract,  has  the  same  essentials. 
(See  contracts.)  In  most  states  married  women  may 
convey  real  estate  which  they  own  in  their  own  right. 
A  partner  cannot  convey  real  estate  belonging  to  the 
firm  unless  empowered  by  special  authority  from  the 
partners  to  do  so. 

Consideration. —  A  sufficient  consideration  is  nec- 
essary to  a  valid  deed.  (See  consideration  under 
contracts.) 

Subject-matter. — The  description  of  the  land  and 
its  boundaries  should  be  extremely  accurate.  The 


534   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

usual  words  of  the  transfer  are  "  give,  grant,  sell  and 
convey,"  though  any  others  conveying  the  same  idea 
could  be  used.  Land  sold  without  reserving  any 
crops  at  that  time  growing  on  it,  conveys  the  crops  or 
everything  attached  to  the  land.  When  a  building 
is  sold  it  conveys  everything  that  belongs  to  it.  The 
words  "  heirs  and  assigns "  are  necessary  in  some 
States  to  convey  an  unconditional  title. 

FORMS  OF  DEEDS. 

Deed  with  full  covenants.  (New  York  Laws  of 
1890. 

This  indenture,  made  the  . .  day  of  . . . .,  in  the 
year  . . . .,  between  A.  B.,  of  ....  (give  occupation 

and  residence),  of  the  first  part,  and  C.  D.,  of  

(occupation  and  residence),  of  the  second  part. 

Witnesseth :  That  the  said  party  of  the  first  part, 
in  consideration  of  ....  dollars,  lawful  money  of  the 
United  States,  paid  by  the  party  of  the  second  part, 
doth  hereby  grant  and  release  unto  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever  (here 
describe  property),  together  with  the  appurtenances 
and  all  the  estate  and  rights  of  the  party  of  the  first 
part  in  and  to  the  said  premises. 

To  have  and  to  hold  the  above  granted  premises 
unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and 
assigns  forever. 

And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  doth  covenant 
with  said  party  of  the  second  part,  as  follows  : 

First.  That  the  party  of  the  first  part   is  seized  of 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  535 

the  said  premises  in  fee  simple,  and  has  good  right 
to  convey  the  same. 

Second.  That  the  party  of  the  second  part  shall 
quietly  enjoy  the  said  premises. 

Third.  That  the  said  premises  are  free  from  in- 
cumbrance. 

Fourth.  That  the  party  of  the  first  part  will  exe- 
cute or  procure  any  further  necessary  assurance  of 
the  title  to  said  premises. 

Fifth.  That  the  party  of  the  first  part  will  forever 
warrant  the  title  of  said  premises. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  party  of  the  first  part 
hath  hereunto  set  his  hand  and  seal  the  day  and  year 
first  above  written.  A.  B. 

In  the  presence  of,  [L.  s.] 

B.  C. 

Acknowledgment  for  the  above. 

STATE  OF  NEW  YORK,  ) 

\  ss.: 
Lounty  of } 

On  this  . .  day  of  . . . .,  in  the  year  . . . .,  before 
me,  the  subscriber,  personally  came  A.  B.  (and  C.  B., 
his  wife),  to  me  known  to  be  the  person  (or  persons) 
described  in  and  who  executed  the  within  instrument, 
and  (severally)  acknowledged  that  he  (or  they)  exe- 
cuted the  same.  J.  A., 

(Give  official  title.) 

New  York :  — "  Every  conveyance  unless  recorded 
is  void  against  a  subsequent  purchaser  in  good  faith, 
whose  conveyance  shall  be  first  duly  recorded.  To 


536   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

entitle  a  conveyance  to  be  recorded  it  must  be 
acknowledged  by  the  party  or  parties  executing  the 
same,  or  shall  be  proved  by  a  subscribing  witness." 
"  The  acknowledgment  of  married  women  may  be 
made,  taken  and  certified  in  the  same  manner  as  if 
they  were  sole." 

Ohio: — All  deeds,  mortgages,  etc.,  executed  within 
the  State  of  Ohio  must  be  signed  by  the  grantor 
and  acknowledged  before  two  attesting  witnesses, 
and  the  said  grantor  must  also  acknowledge  the 
same  before  a  judge  of  the  court  of  record  of  that 
State  or  some  other  competent  authority. 

(Laws  of  Ohio,  1890.) 

STATE   OF    OHIO,  ) 

r       *      f  \ss': 

Lounty  oj  .  . .  .,  j 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  ..  day  of  ...., 
189..,  before  me,  the  subscriber,  a  (give  official 
title),  in  and  for  the  said  county,  came  A.  B.,  and 
C.  B.,  his  wife,  the  grantors  in  the  foregoing  instru- 
ment, and  acknowledged  the  signing  thereof  to  be 
their  voluntary  act  and  deed  for  the  uses  and  pur- 
poses therein  mentioned.  And  the  said  C.  B.,  wife 
of  the  said  A.  B.,  being  examined  by  me  separate 
and  apart  from  her  said  husband,  and  the  contents 
of  the  said  instrument  being  by  me  made  known  and 
explained  to  her  as  the  statute  directs,  declared  that 
she  did  voluntarily  sign  and  acknowledge  the  same 
and  that  she  is  still  satisfied  therewith  as  her  act  and 
deed. 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  537 

In  testimony  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand 
and  affixed  my  official  seal,  the  day  and  year 
[L.  s.]  last  above  written. 

(Signature  and  title.) 

The  following  States  require  no  separate  examina- 
tion in  acknowledgments  by  husband  and  wife : 
Connecticut,  the  Dakotas,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  Maryland,  Massachusetts.  Michigan,  Minne- 
sota, Mississippi,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  New  Hamp- 
shire, New  Mexico,  New  York,  Wisconsin,  Wyoming 
and  Washington. 

The  following  States  require  a  separate  examina- 
tion :  Delaware,  District  of  Columbia,  Florida,  Idaho, 
Kentucky,  Nevada,  New  Jersey,  North  Carolina, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina, 
Tennessee  and  Texas. 

COMMON  CARRIERS. 

A  common  carrier  is  one  who,  for  a  compensation, 
carries  the  goods  of  whosever  offers,  as  a  regular 
business. 

Carrier  s  Obligations. — He  must  take  all  goods 
offered,  unless  of  a  dangerous  kind.  He  must  charge 
one  person  no  higher  rates  than  another.  He  must 
take  such  care  of  the  goods  as  a  prudent  man  would 
of  his  own.  He  must  carry  them  by  the  usual  route 
and  make  a  proper  delivery  of  them.  He  must  place 
the  goods  in  a  proper  place  and  give  notice  of  their 
arrival. 


538   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Carrier  s  Liabilities. — In  common  law  they  are  lia- 
ble for  all  losses  "  except  those  occasioned  by  the  act 
of  God  or  the  acts  of  the  public  enemy."  He  is 
responsible  for  losses  by  theft,  robbery,  etc. 

Railroad  companies  are  responsible  as  carriers  to 
parties  sending  goods  by  express  over  their  lines, 
irrespective  of  the  said  parties'  contract  with  the  ex- 
press company. 

A  carrier's  liability  begins  as  soon  as  he  has  ac- 
cepted the  goods.  It  ends  as  soon  as  he  has  carried 
them  to  their  destination  and  has  deposited  them 
there. 

The  notices  on  their  receipts  whereby  they  seek  to 
avoid  all  responsibility,  are  "  no  evidence  of  assent 
on  the  part  of  the  owner,"  and  the  liability  cannot  be 
avoided  that  way.  He  may  avoid  almost  anything 
by  making  a  special  contract. 

He  might  avoid  liability  by  notice  if  he  could 
prove  that  the  shipper  had  read  his  notice  or  was 
familiar  with  its  terms,  though  there  is  some  question 
about  this  in  New  York  at  least. 

Carriers  of  Passengers. — They  are  bound  to  make 
use  of  all  ordinary  methods  for  the  safety  of  their 
passengers.  They  must  employ  proper  vehicles  and 
competent  servants.  In  general,  they  are  bound  to 
run  trains  on  their  advertised  time.  They  are  liable 
to  passengers  for  the  misconduct  of  their  servants. 
If  any  person  is  injured  through  their  negligence, 
they  are  liable  not  only  for  the  damage  that  person 
has  received,  but  i&c  prospective  damage  as  well.  He 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  539 

is  an  insurer  of  his  passengers'  baggage.  He  is  lia- 
ble for  such  baggage  as  his  passengers  carry  for  their 
own  personal  use.  He  cannot  avoid  liability  by  no- 
tices, as  a  notice  is  no  evidence  of  the  assent  of  the 
owner  of  the  baggage.  The  carrier  may  avoid  liabil- 
ity to  some  extent  by  a  special  contract. 

They  must  take  each  person  who  tenders  the  price 
of  transportation  and  wishes  to  be  carried.  They 
are  not  obliged  to  take  disorderly  or  persons  of 
doubtful  character,  or  those  afflicted  with  some  con- 
tagious disease.  They  are  not  responsible  to  their 
passengers  for  accidents  where  all  skill  and  diligence 
has  been  employed.  Passengers  are  required  to  sub- 
mit to  all  reasonable  rules  and  regulations,  to  show 
their  tickets  whenever  asked,  and  to  surrender  their 
tickets  whenever  required. 

CURRENCY. 

The  National  Bank  Act  fixes  the  capital  required 
to  establish  a  National  Bank  as  follows  :  Towns  of 
less  than  6,000  inhabitants,  a  capital  of  not  less  than 
$50,000 ;  towns  of  from  6,000  to  50,000,  a  capital  of 
not  less  than  $100,000;  in  towns  of  over  50,000,  at 
least  $200,000  will  be  required. 

Each  bank  must  deposit  with  the  Treasurer  at 
Washington,  government  bonds  to  the  extent  of  at 
least  one-third  its  capital,  as  security  for  the  notes  of 
the  bank.  The  government  then  issues  to  the  bank, 
ninety  per  cent,  in  notes,  which,  when  properly  filled 
and  signed,  constitute  the  circulation  of  the  bank. 


54-O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Such  banks  are  required  to  keep  on  hand  at  least 
twenty-five  per  cent  in  legal  tender  of  its  circulation 
and  deposits. 

The  notes  of  such  banks  are  secured  to  the  hold- 
ers, but  depositors  run  the  same  risk  of  loss  as  with 
other  banks. 

CHECKS. 

A  check  is  an  order  to  a  bank  to  pay  the  holder 
a  certain  sum  of  money  on  presentation  and  without 
days  of  grace. 

A  check,  as  in  the  case  of  a  promissory  note,  may 
or  may  not  be  negotiable  according  to  the  way  it  is 
drawn. 

A  check  given  is  no  payment  of  a  debt  unless  paid 
when  presented. 

Payment  of  a  check  may  be  stopped  at  any  time 
before  it  is  presented  if  notice  is  given  the  bank. 

Every  indorser  of  a  check  is  liable  to  each  follow- 
ing indorser  as  in  the  case  of  promissory  notes,  but 
for  no  longer  time  than  he  would  have  been  held  had 
he  been  the  maker  of  the  check. 

Certificates  of  Deposit  partake  of  the  nature  of 
certified  checks  and  are  used  when  money  is  depos- 
ited for  a  short  time  and  no  regular  bank  account 
opened. 

When  wishing  to  draw  your  money  in  person,  draw 
the  check  payable  to  "  Self  "  or  "  Cash." 

Write  the  amount  of  the  check  both  in  words  and 
figures,  taking  care  that  no  blank  spaces  are  left  that 
could  be  filled  to  "  raise  "  the  amount  of  the  check. 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  54! 

Indorsements. —  The  left-hand  end  of  a  check  is  the 
top. 

Write  the  indorsement  across  the  back,  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  top. 

If  your  name  has  been  improperly  spelled  in  the 
body  of  the  check,  indorse  it  exactly  as  written 
therein,  then  below  write  your  name  properly. 

If  titles  are  used  in  the  body  of  the  check,  they 
must  appear  with  the  name  in  the  indorsement. 

In  drawing  a  check  payable  to  one  not  known  at 
the  bank  you  can  avoid  the  necessity  of  identification 
by  having  him  indorse  it  in  your  presence  and  you 
write  under  it,  "Above  indorsement  correct "  and  sign 
your  name. 

Checks  that  are  to  be  deposited  are  usually  in- 
dorsed, "  For  deposit,"  or  "  For  deposit  to  the  credit 
of,"  and  such  indorsements  may  be  made  by  clerks 
and  the  checks  deposited  to  the  credit  of  their  firm. 
For  further  reference  see  indorsements  of  promis- 
sory notes. 

NOTES. 

A  promissory  note  is  an  uncpnditional  promise  in 
writing,  to  pay  a  certain  person  a  certain  sum  of 
money  at  a  certain  future  time.  The  essentials  are 
that  it  be  certainly  paid,  not  out  of  any  particular  fund, 
nor  dependent  upon  any  contingency  ;  that  it  be  for 
the  payment  of  money  only. 

Five  important  points  of  a  negotiable  promissory 
note  are  :  (i)  That  the  date  of  payment  be  specified. 


542   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

(2)  That  the  amount  be  plainly  stated.  (3)  That  it 
be  paid  only  in  lawful  money.  (4)  That  the  promise 
be  without  conditions.  (5)  That  it  contain  the  words 
"  order"  or  "bearer,"  or  other  words  showing  the  in- 
tention to  make  it  negotiable. 

Indorsement:  A  note  is  indorsed  when  any  thing 
relating  to  it  is  written  upon  the  back.  The  writer 
of  the  name  is  called  the  indorser,  and  the  person  for 
whose  benefit  it  is  written  is  the  indorsee. 

There  are  five  kinds  of  indorsements  :  (i)  In  full. 
(2)  In  blank.  (3)  Conditional.  (4)  Qualified.  (5) 
Restrictive. 

1.  In  full:    When   the  name  of  the  indorsee  is 
mentioned,  when  none  but  he  can  demand  payment. 
If  he  wishes  to   transfer  it  he  must  add  his  own  in- 
dorsement in  writing.      This   is  the   usual  form  and 
shows  through  what  hands  it  passes. 

2.  In    blank:    Indorsement   in   blank  consists  of 
the   indorsees   name   alone.     It  is  then  payable  to 
bearer,  and   is  transferred  by  simple   delivery  from 
hand  to  hand.     The  indorser  in  full  or  in  blank  is 
obligated  to  any  subsequent  holder  if  the  maker  does 
not  pay  it  and  the  mdorser   is  given   due   notice  of 
such  failure. 

3.  Conditional ':  When  the  payment  is  made  con- 
ditional upon  some  uncertain  event. 

4.  Qualified ':  When  the  usual  form  is  departed 
from  and  the  indorser  restrains,  limits,  or  enlarges 
Ms  liability  as  such. 

An  indorsement  "without  recourse  to  me"  trans- 


THINGS  YOU  SHOULD  KNOW.          543 

fers  the  title  and  releases  the  indorser  from  any  lia- 
bility. The  exact  words  used  do  not  matter  if  they 
show  the  intention  to  avoid  responsibility. 

When  acting  for  another  party  the  words  "agent," 
"  attorney,"  or  their  equivalent  will  release,  if  added 
to  the  indorsement,  the  said  agent  from  personal 
responsibility. 

5.  Restrictive:  When  the  indorsement  restrains 
the  negotiability  to  some  certain  person  as,  "  Pay 
to  John  Doe  only,"  or,  "Pay  John  Doe  for  my 
account." 

Transfer:  An  indorsement  to  bearer  is  transferred 
by  delivery;  or,  if  indorsed  in  blank,  it  can  be  done 
in  the  same  way  by  the  indorsee,  though  drawn  paya- 
ble to  order. 

1.  Before  maturity  an    innocent    purchaser    can 
enforce  the  collection  of  a  note,  even  if  it  be  found 
to   have  been    lost,   stolen,   or    obtained  by    fraud. 
Five  things  are  necessary:  (i)  That  he  obtained  it 
in  good  faith.     (2)  That  he  was   not  aware  of  any 
defect  in  the  title  of  the  one  from  whom  he  obtained 
it.      (3)  That  it  be  negotiable.     (4)  That  it  was  ob- 
tained  for  value.     (5)  That  it  was  obtained  before 
maturity.     Should  he  be  aware  of  any  defect  in  the 
title  at  the  time  of  obtaining  it,  he  takes  it  subject  to 
any  defense  that  could  be  legally  brought  against  it 
at  first. 

2.  After  maturity :  A  note  may  still  be  negotia- 
ble, but  the  purchaser  now  takes  it  subject  to  any 
defense  originally  existing. 


544   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Days  of  Grace. — These  are  called ' '  days  of  grace, " 
because  they  were  formerly  allowed  as  a  matter  of 
favor ;  they  have  at  last  come  to  be  recognized  as  a 
right  in  nearly  all  cases.  The  statutes  of  the  differ- 
ent States  may  vary  from  the  "  law  merchant "  relat- 
ing to  classes  of  paper  on  which  grace  is  to  be  allowed. 
The  general  law  is,  that  when  the  last  day  of  grace 
falls  upon  Sunday  or  a  legal  holiday,  the  demand 
must  be  made  on  the  preceding  secular  day.  Penn- 
sylvania, Maine  and  Georgia  allow  the  demand  to  be 
made  on  the  succeeding  secular  day.  Days  of  grace 
have  been  abolished  in  New  York. 

In  Pennsylvania,  when  the  last  day  of  grace  falls 
upon  Good  Friday — there  a  holiday — the  demand 
must  be  made  the  following  Monday,  since  Saturday 
is  also  a  holiday  there,  so  far  as  demand  of  payment 
is  concerned. 

Demand.  —  No  demand  is  necessary  to  hold  the 
maker.  For  the  purpose  of  holding  those  condition- 
ally liable,  a  demand  must  be  made  first  on  those 
primarily  liable. 

1.  Notes  should  be  presented  for  payment  by  the 
holder  or  his  authorized  agent. 

2.  Demand  should  be  made  on   the   maker,  or,  in 
his  absence,  on  his  authorized  agent. 

3.  To  hold  indorser,  the  demand  must  be  made  on 
the  very  day  of  maturity,  no  sooner,  no  later. 

4.  If  no  place  of  payment  is  specified  in  the  note, 
it  must  be  presented   at  the  residence   or  place  of 
business   of  the   maker,  and  during  regular  business 


THINGS  YOU  SHOULD  KNOW.          545 

hours.  A  personal  demand  is  not  necessary  when 
the  place  of  payment  is  specified.  It  is  sufficient  if 
the  note  be  sent  there  in  due  time. 

Law  of  Place.  —  When  given  in  one  State  and 
payable  in  another,  it  will  be  governed  by  the  laws 
of  the  State  where  payable,  in  the  matter  of  interest, 
if  the  rate  is  not  mentioned.  The  "  law  merchant " 
is,  that  the  maker  is  bound  by  the  laws  of  the  place 
where  made ;  the  indorser  by  the  law  where  indorsed  ; 
demand,  days  of  grace,  etc.,  by  the  laws  where 
payable. 

Payment.  —  Possession  is  presumptive  evidence  of 
title  on  paper  drawn  or  indorsed,  payable  to  bearer, 
and  payment  may  be  made  to  the  one  presenting  it. 
Before  paying,  the  maker  should  be  careful  that  any 
indorsements  are  genuine,  and  that  the  title  is  prop- 
erly transferred.  Payment  by  an  indorser  satisfies 
only  so  far  as  the  subsequent  indorsers  are  concerned, 
for  the  note  is  not  discharged  until  paid  by  the 
maker.  After  an  indorser  has  paid  a  dishonored 
note,  he  may  put  it  in  circulation  again. 

The  holder  takes  his  title  from  theyfr.sv?  indorser 
if  made  in  blank  or  is  a  general  indorsement, 
and  the  maker  is  protected  in  making  payment  to 
him. 

Non-payment.  —  If  the  only  parties  concerned  are 
the  original  ones,  demand  need  not  be  made  at 
maturity.  The  whole  object  of  demand,  protest,  and 
notice  of  non-payment  is  to  hold  the  indorsers  or 
others  conditionally  liable. 
35 


546   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL .  PEOPLE. 

Protest. —  A  protest  is  a  formal  statement  made 
by  a  notary  public,  giving  a  copy  or  description  of 
the  note,  stating  that  payment  has  been  demanded 
and  refused,  giving  reason  of  refusal,  if  any,  and  the 
purpose  and  object  of  the  protest.  The  protest 
must  be  made  by  the  notary  personally,  and  duly 
signed  and  sealed. 

Notice. —  i.  Notice  should  be  given  by  the  holder 
or  some  suitable  person  authorized  to  act  for  him. 
The  notary  may  do  this. 

2.  Notices  must  be  served  on  all  whom  the  holder 
wishes  to  make  responsible  for   the   payment.      He 
may  notify  all  prior  parties,  or  only   the  immediate 
indorser,    as   he   may  wish.     Each   indorser   should 
protect  his  own  interests  by  notifying  all  parties  re- 
sponsible to  him.      Indorsers  are  liable,  in  order  of 
their  respective   indorsements,    to   each   subsequent 
indorser. 

3.  Due  diligence  must  be  exercised  in  giving  the 
notice.     It  is  best  to  give  it  the  same  day,  but  if  the 
dishonor  occurs  Saturday  or  immediately  preceding 
a  holiday,  it  will  be  in  time  if  given  the  succeeding 
secular  day.     Certain  obstacles,  as  war,  prevalence  of 
a  contagious  disease,    floods,  or  act   of    Providence, 
will  be  accepted  as  legal  excuses  for  want  of  notice. 

4.  Any  place  will  do,  if  given  personally.     Notice 
in  writing  may  be  left  at  the  place  of  business  or  at 
the  house  of  the  persen  to  be   notified.  .    When   the 
person  resides  at  a  distance  he  may  be  notified  by  a 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  547 

letter  properly  addressed  and  mailed  to  the  office 
where  he  receives  his  letters. 

5.  The  notice  may  be  either  verbal  or  written,  and 
any  form  that  clearly  conveys  the  idea  intended  will 
be  sufficient.  The  note  should  be  clearly  described. 
It  is  well  described  when  its  maker,  payee,  date, 
amount,  and  time  and  place  of  payment  are  named. 

Personal  notice  must  be  given  when  the  holder  and 
person  to  be  notified  live  in  the  same  place,  unless 
the  laws  of  the  State  do  not  require  it.  In  New  York 
and  many  other  States  written  notice  properly  ad- 
dressed and  mailed  is  sufficient. 

Notice  of  Protest. 

$587.00. 

SECOND  NATIONAL  BANK,  Utica,  N.  Y.,  June  2$,  1894. 
Take  notice   that  the  promissory  note  made  by 
C.  M.  Taylor  for  $587  and  interest,  dated  October  2, 
1893.  payable  to  your  order  at  this  bank,   payable 
this  day  and  indorsed  by  you,  is  protested  for  non- 
payment, and  the  holder,  J.  B.  Morrow,  looks  to  you 
for  the  payment  thereof,  payment  of  the  same  having 
this  day  been  demanded  and  refused. 
Respectfully  yours, 

H.  K.  LONG, 

Notary  Public. 
To  J.  L.  BROWNE. 

The  indorser  may  waive  demand  of  payment,  notice 
of  protest,  etc.,  at  the  time  of  the  indorsement,  or  even. 
at  any  time  before  maturity.  The  following  is  the 


548   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

usual  form  :  "  I   hereby  waive  demand,  protest,  and 

notice  of  dishonor."         (Signed) . 

Guaranty. —  Guaranties  are  of  two  kinds,  guaranty 
of  payment  and  guaranty  of  collection. 

1.  Guaranty  of  payment  absolutely  guarantees  that 
the  note  shall  be  paid  at  maturity. 

2.  Guaranty  of  collection  holds  the  guarantor  after 
the  holder  has  failed  to  collect  of  the  maker. 

The  general  rule  is  that  the  guarantor  is  not  entitled 
to  demand  and  notice  of  protest.  The  following  is 
the  usual  form  .  "  For  value  received  I  hereby 
guaranty  the  payment  (or  collection)  of  the  within 
note."  (Signed)  JOHN  F.  HERRICK. 

Defenses. —  i.  Want  of  consideration,  if  total,  is  a 
perfect  defense.  If  it  is  only  a  partial  ^failure  it  will 
defeat  recovery  only  to  that  extent. 

2.  Obtained   through    fear   or    compulsion.     The 
threats  and  duress  must  be  such  as  would  cause   a 
person   of  ordinary  firmness  of  mind  to  apprehend 
danger  to  himself,  reputation,  or  property. 

3.  Fraud.     Fraud  vitiates  all  contracts. 

4.  Obtained  by  finding  or  theft.     This  is  no  de- 
fense against  a  bonafide  and  innocent  purchaser  who 
obtains  the  note  before  maturity  and  gives  a  valuable 
consideration  for  it. 

5.  Illegal  consideration.     A  note  illegal  on  its  face 
gives  warning  to  all.     A  note  showing  on  its  face 
that  it  called  for  more  than  the  legal  rate  of  interest 
would  be  subject  to  such  defense. 

Notes  given  for  "  debts  of  honor "  are  void  be- 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  549 

tween  original  parties,  but  if  indorsed  and  negotiated, 
the  first  indorser  would  be  holden. 

Presumptions. —  i.  The  law  presumes  that  the 
negotiable  paper  was  given  for  a  consideration, 
whether  expressed  or  not.  The  contrary  must  be 
proven  to  constitute  a  defense. 

2.  The  holder  is  presumed  to  be  the  owner. 

3.  Indorsements  and  transfers  are  presumed  to  be 
made  before  the  paper  became  due. 

4.  The  law  presumes  the  holder  to  have  acquired 
the  paper  in  the  the  usual  course  of  business. 

5.  It  is  conclusively  presumed  that  the  paper  means 
precisely  what  it  says  and  parol  evidence  will  not  be 
allowed  to  offset  it. 

A  note  given  by  a  lunatic,  an  intoxicated  person 
or  a  minor,  is  void. 

A  note  given  by  one  who  cannot  write  should  be 
witnessed  by  an  uninterested  person. 

A  person  receiving  a  note,  knowing  it  to  be  defec- 
tive, has  no  better  title  than  the  person  from  whom 
he  purchased. 

A  note  as  a  gift,  being  without  consideration,  is 
voidable. 

If  the  holder  of  a  note  extends  the  time  of  payment 
to  the  maker,  his  action  releases  all  persons  con- 
ditionally liable. 

In  a  note  containing  "  we  promise"  or  "we  jointly 
promise"  the  liability  is  a  joint  one,  and  all  must  be 
sued  ;  "  we  or  either  of  us  promise"  or  "we  jointly 


55O   A  PRACTICAL.  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

and  severally  promise"  here  the  liability  is  both  joint 
an4  several  and  either  or  all  the  parties  may  be  sued. 

In  a  note  containing  "  I  promise"  and  signed  by 
two  or  more  persons,  each  signer  is  obligated  for  the 
whole  amount,  and  either  or  all  may  be  sued. 

After  becoming  of  age  a  minor  may  ratify  a  note 
given  during  his  minority. 


FORMS  OF  INDORSEMENTS. 


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oo  f 
M  o 

M-S 

O   C 

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•— >  D 

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Judgment  Note. 


value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  to  John  Doe,  or  order, 
Four  Hundred  Twenty-five  and  25)100  dollars  ($425.25),  three 
months  after  date;  and  I  here  nominate,  constitute,  and  appoint  the 
said  John  Doe,  or  any  attorney  at  law  of  this  State,  my  true  and  law- 
ful attorney,  for  me  and  in  my  name  to  appear  at  any  court  of  record 
of  this  State,  at  any  time  after  the  above  promissory  note  becomes 
due,  and  to  waive  all  processes  and  services  thereof,  and  to  confess 
judgment  in  favor  of  the  holder  herein,  for  the  sum  that  may  be  due 
and  mving  hereon,  with  interest  and  costs  and  waiving  all  errors. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  at 
Williamsport,  Pa.,  this  first  day  of  June,  1895. 

Richard  Roe. 


THINGS   YOU    SHOULD    KNOW. 
Check  — Usual  Form. 


551 


Draft. 


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frotniasory  Note. 


after  bate, 


of 


.  promise  to  pa^  to 


Dollars, 


oalue  recetoefc 
Ho. 


552       A    PRACTICAL    BOOK    FOR    PRACTICAL    PEOPLE. 
Neto  York  Form  of  Married  Woman's  Note. 

$25.00.  Albany,  JV.  Y.,  June  i,  1895. 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  to  John  Doe,  or  order. 
Twenty-five  dollars  ($25.00),  one  year  from  date,  with  interest. 
And  J  hereby  charge  my  separate  estate  with  the  payment  of  this  note. 

Helen  Gladstone. 


Joint  and  Several  Note. 

$100.00.  Albany,  JV.  Y.,  June  i,  1895. 

Three  months  after  date  we  jointly  and  severally  promise  to 

pay  ,  or  bearer,   One  Hundred  dollars  ($100.00), 

value  received.  A.  B. 

C.  D. 

Certificate  of  Deposit. 

CENTRAL  NATIONAL  BANK, 

Troy,  N.  Y.,  June  i,  1895. 

This  is  to  certify  that  H.  J.  Moses  has  deposited  in  this  bank 
One  Thousand  dollars  ($1,000.00),  payable  to  his  order  on  return 
of  this  certificate,  properly  indorsed. 

E.   W.  Greenman, 

Cashier 

CONTRACTS. 

A  contract  is,  "  an  agreement  for  a  suitable  consid- 
eration to  do  or  not  to  do  a  certain  thing." 

The  essentials  of  a  contract  are  :  i.  The  Parties; 
2.  Consideration;  3.  Subject-matter;  4.  Assent;  5. 
Time.  These  are  essential  and  the  other  elements 
are  those  that  give  to  the  contract  its  particular  char- 
acter. 

i.  The  Parties. —  The  parties  must  be  com- 
petent. A  contract  with  a  minor  is  not  binding  upon 
him  for  anything  except  necessaries,  though  he  may 
hold  the  other  party  to  a  strict  accounting.  What 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  553 

constitute  necessaries  would  depend  upon  the  age, 
the  rank,  and  fortune  of  the  minor. 

2.  Consideration. —  No  contract  is  valid  without 
a  sufficient  consideration.  Consideration  may  be  di- 
vided; as,  (A)  Valuable;  (B)  Good;  (C)  Insufficient. 

(A)  Valuable  consideration  is  usually  expressed  by 
money  or  is  convertible  into  money. 

(B)  A  good  consideration  is  founded  on  love,  affec- 
tion, or  gratitude.     It  will  be  accepted  as  considera- 
tion for  a  contract  already  performed,  but  is  not  good 
for  contracts  to  be  performed  sometime  in  the  future. 
As  a  gift    already  made   but    not   holding   for   one 
promised. 

(C)  Insufficient  consideration  may  be  classed,  as  (D) 
Gratuitous;   (E)  Illegal;   (F)  Impossible;  (G)  Moral. 

Gratuitous. — A  contract  based  on  a  promise  wholly 
gratuitous  is  void  for  want  of  consideration.  Exam- 
ples: Public  subscriptions,  charities,  etc. 

Illegal. — A  contract  with  an  illegal  consideration  is 
void.  A  contract  to  commit,  conceal,  or  compound 
a  crime  is  void.  Either  party  may  avoid  the  contract 
where  the  consideration  is  illegal. 

Impossible. —  If  the  consideration  is  impossible  the 
contract  is  void.  The  law  compels  no  one  to  per- 
form impossibilities.  That  the  consideration  was 
difficult  would  not  be  an  excuse. 

Moral. — A  moral  obligation,  alone,  is  not  a  suffi- 
cient consideration.  A  person  is  not  legally  obli- 
gated to  pay  for  services  already  rendered  a  relative, 
even  though  he  promise  to  do  so  after  the  services  are 


554   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

performed.  Had  the  person  promised  before  the 
service  was  performed,  the  case  would  be  different. 
The  position  of  a  parent  and  minor  child  would  be 
an  exception. 

3.  Subject-matter. —  All  contracts  the  subject- 
matter  of  which  is  illegal,  immoral,  or  impolitic  are 
void. 

Contracts  in  restraint  of  trade  are  void  even  though 
given  for  a  valuable  consideration.  A  contract  not 
to  carry  on  a  lawful  business  anywhere,  whether  the 
time  be  limited  or  not  is  invalid.  An  agreement  in 
partial  restraint  of  trade  if  confined  within  reason- 
able bounds  or  to  certain  persons  and  given  for  a 
sufficient  consideration  would  be  valid. 

A  doctor  might  sell  his  practice  and  agree  not  to 
practice  within  a  certain  number  of  miles  of  the 
place.  If  given  for  a  valuable  consideration,  the 
contract  would  be  valid.  The  court  would  decide  the 
reasonableness  of  the  limitation. 

Contracts  in  general  restraint  of  marriage  are  void 
because  against  public  policy.  A  contract  not  to 
marry  a  particular  person  would  be  valid.  A  con- 
tract not  to  marry  until  of  a  suitable  or  reasonable 
age  is  valid.  The  condition  that  a  widow  shall  for- 
feit certain  portions  of  her  deceased  husband's  estate 
if  she  marry  again  may  be  valid,  if  she  accepted  it 
under  those  conditions. 

Fraud  vitiates  any  contract  if  the  innocent  party 
so  wishes,  otherwise  the  other  party  may  be  held.  A 
contract  that  operates  as  a  fraud  on  third  parties  is 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  555 

void.     Examples :  Fraudulent  assignments  ;  fraudu- 
lent sales;  perversion  of  insolvent  laws. 

"  Fraud  consists  in  the  employment  of  any  kind  of 
cunning,  deception,  artifice,  or  concealment  to  cheat, 
circumvent,  or  deceive  another  in  a  business  matter." 
If  both  parties  are  equally  guilty,  neither  has  usually 
any  redress  at  law.  If  one  party  is  more  innocent, 
the  reverse  is  true.  The  innocent  party  may  many 
times  hold  the  other  if  he  chooses,  or  himself  refuse 
to  be  bound  by  the  contract.  The  guilty  party  can- 
not avoid  the  contract  on  account  of  his  own  fraud 
if  the  contract  is  already  executed. 

4.  Assent.  — -There  can  be  no  contract  valid  and 
binding,  unless   the  parties  assent  to  the  same  thing 
and  in  the  same  sense.     There  must  be  a  proposition 
by  one  party  and  an  acceptance  by  the  other. 

If  the  proposition  and  acceptance  are  made  by  mail, 
the  contract  is  presumed  to  be  completed  as  soon  as 
the  acceptance  is  mailed,  and  even  a  telegram  coun- 
termanding it  before  the  letter  was  received  need  not 
necessarily  be  allowed  to  avoid  it. 

5.  Time. --Time  enters  into  the  contract  as  an  es- 
sential element   and   is   either  expressed  or  implied. 
Something  to  be  done  between  two  certain  days  is 
not  performed  if  done  on   either  of  those  days.     If 
the  day  for  performance  falls  upon  Sunday,  the  per- 
forming party  has  the  privilege  of  performing  on  the 
next  secular  day. 


556   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

STATUTE  OF  FRAUDS. 

By  the  "  Statute  of  Frauds,"  which  has  been 
adopted  by  most  States,  certain  contracts  must  be  in 
writing  The  following  are  those  adopted  by  New 
York  and  most  other  States :  "  Every  contract  for 
the  leasing  of  a  longer  period  than  one  year,  or  for  the 
sale  of  any  lands,  or  any  interest  in  lands,  shall  be 
void,  unless  the  contract  or  some  note  or  memorandum 
thereof,  expressing  the  consideration,  be  in  writing 
and  be  subscribed  by  the  party  by  whom  the  lease  or 
sale  is  made."  Annual  crops  resulting  from  cultiva- 
tion, if  the  price  is  less  than  fifty  dollars,  do  not 
come  within  the  meaning  of  the  statute ;  as  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  etc. 

In  the  following  cases  every  agreement  shall  be 
void  unless  such  agreement,  or  some  note  or  memo- 
randum thereof,  be  in  writing  and  subscribed  by  the 
party  to  be  charged  therewith  : 

1.  Every  agreement  that,  by  its  terms,  is  not  to  be 
performed  within  one  year  from  the  making  thereof. 

2.  Every  special  promise   to  answer  for  the  debt, 
default,  or  miscarriage  of  another. 

3.  Every    agreement,    promise,    or    undertaking, 
made  upon  consideration  of  marriage,  except  mutual 
promises  to  marry. 

4.  Every    contract   for   the    sale   of  any  chattels, 
goods,  or  things  in  action,  for  the  price  of  fifty  dol- 
lars or  more  shall  be  void  unless, 

"First,  A  note  or  memorandum  of  such  contract  be 
made  in  writing  and  subscribed  by  the  parties  to  be 
charged  thereby  ;  or, 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  557 

"Second,  Unless  the  buyer  shall  accept  and  receive 
part  of  such  goods  or  the  evidences,  or  some  of  them, 
of  such  things  in  action  ;  or, 

"Third,  Unless  the  buyer  shall,  at  the  time,  pay 
some  part  of  the  purchase-money." 

In  addition  to  being  written,  there  must  be  a  con- 
sideration in  the  contracts,  as  above,  either  express 
or  implied. 

"A  party  to  a  contract  is  not  bound  until  he  yields 
a  full,  free  and  intelligent  assent  of  its  terms."  "An 
offer  made  may  be  retracted  any  time  before  its 
acceptance." 

A  competent  party  making  a  contract  with  a  minor 
cannot  hold  the  minor,  except  as  before  noted,  but 
the  minor  can  sue  and  recover  for  the  non-perform- 
ance of  the  other  party. 

Contracts  required  to  be  in  writing  by  the  "  Statute 
of  Frauds,"  hold  only  the  party  signing  if  but  one 
signs.  The  other  has  it  at  his  option. 

Damages.  —  "Perform  your  contract  or  pay  dam- 
ages." The  law  cannot  compel  the  performance  of  a 
contract ;  it  only  knows  a  money  remedy  for  non- 
performance.  In  a  contract  for  personal  service 
which  cannot  well  be  rilled  by  another,  the  sickness 
of  the  promising  party  will  excuse  non-performance. 

A  court  of  equity  may  compel  the  performance  of 
certain  agreements  ;  as  the  conveyance  of  real  estate. 

Construction. —  The  following  rules  are  observed 
in  the  interpretation  of  contracts : 

i.  Intention.  —  The   first  care  is  to  give  effect  to 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

the  intention  of  the  parties  so  far  as  the  intention 
was  mutual  and  legal. 

2.  Meaning  of  Terms.  —  The  terms  of  a  contract 
are  to  be  interpreted  according  to  their  usual  mean- 
ing, if  that  seems  to  satisfy  the  intention  of  the  par- 
ties. Technical  words  are  interpreted  according  to 
their  use  in  the  profession,  or  the  trade  to  which 
they  belong. 

Interpretation.  —  Certain  contracts  are  expounded 
according  to  the  usage  or  custom  of  trade  when 
needed  to  explain  the  meaning  of  peculiar  terms. 
The  law  of  place  would  also  enter  as  a  factor ;  if  the 
custom  of  the  place  where  the  contract  was  made 
differed  from  other  places,  that  would  give  a  different 
meaning  to  its  terms. 

The  interpretation  is  made  upon  the  whole  con- 
tract and  not  upon  its  parts.  The  object  of  the  par- 
ties is  to  be  gathered  from  the  whole  instrument,  and 
one  clause  will  be  interpreted  by  another. 

Wherever  one  portion  cannot  be  reconciled  with 
the  obvious  intention  of  the  parties,  it  will  be  ex- 
punged. <f  Effect  will  be  given  to .  the  whole  inten- 
tion." 

FORMS  OF  CONTRACTS  —  A  GENERAL  RELEASE. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents :  That  I,  A.  B.,  of 

in  consideration  of ,  and  other  good 

and  valuable  considerations  to  me  in  hand  paid  by 

A.  C.,  of ,  have  remised,  released  and  forever 

discharged,  and  by  these  presents  do,  for  me,  my 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  559 

heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  remise,  release, 
and  forever  discharge  said  A.  C.,  his  heirs,  executors, 
and  administrators,  of  and  from  all  and  all  manner  of 
actions,  suits,  debts,  dues,  sums  of  money,  accounts, 
reckonings,  bonds,  bills,  specialties,  covenants,  con- 
tracts, controversies,  agreements,  promises,  variances, 
damages,  judgments,  executions,  claims  and  demands 
whatsoever,  in  law  or  equity,  which  against  the  said 
A.  B.  I  ever  had,  now  have,  or  which  I,  my  heirs, 
my  executors  and  administrators  hereafter  can,  shall, 
or  may  have,  for,  upon  or  by  reason  of  any  matter, 

cause  or  thing  whatsoever  (or  by  reason  of ), 

from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to  the  day  of  the 
date  of  these  presents. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set   my  hand 

and  seal,  this day  of ,  A.  D.,  189. . 

(Signed)  A.  B.  [L.  s.] 

Signed  and  delivered  in  the  presence  of 

D.  E. 

Memorandum  of  sale. —  It  is  agreed  by  and  between 

A.  B.  and  B.  E.,  of,  etc.,  that  said  A.  B.,  in  considera- 
tion of  two  hundred  bushels  of  wheat,  sold  to  him 
this  day  by  the  said  B.  E.,  free  of  all  charges  or  ex- 
penses, whatsoever,  at     ,  on  or  before , 

shall  and  will  pay  or  cause  to  be  paid   to  the  said 

B.  E.,  or  his  assigns,  upon  such  delivery,  the  sum 
of dollars. 

And  the  said  B.  E.,  in  consideration  of  the  agree- 
ment aforesaid  of  the  said  A.  B.,  doth  promise  and 


560   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

agree,  on  or  before  the  said ,  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, to  send  in  and  deliver  to  the  said  A.  B.,  or 
his  assigns,  the  said  two  hundred  bushels  of  wheat 
so  sold  him  as  aforesaid,  and  the  said  B.  E.  shall 
and  will  warrant  the  same  to  be  good,  clean  and 
merchantable  grain. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  parties  have  here- 
unto set  their  hands  the  day  and  year  first  above 
written. 

A.  B. 

In  presence  of  B.  E. 

C.  D. 

Lease  of  house. —  I, of ,  hereby  lease 

to of ,  for  the  term  of ,  to  com- 
mence on  the  dwelling-house  (describe  it) 

with  its  appurtenances,  for  the  yearly  rent  of   , 

to  be  paid 

Said  .,...,,  agrees  to  pay  said ,  said  rents 

at  the  times  above  specified  and  to  surrender  the 
premises  at  the  expiration  of  the  term,  in  as  good 
condition  as  reasonable  use  will  allow,  fire  and  un- 
avoidable accidents  excepted. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  parties  have  hereunto 

set  their  hands  this of ,  A.  D.,  1 89 . . 

(Signed)  — . 

(Signed) 

General  form  of  contract. —  Memorandum  of  an 
agreement  made  this day  of  ,  in  the 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  561 

year,  189. .,  between  A.  B.,  of   ,  as  first  party 

and  B.  C.,  of ,  as  second  party, 

Witnesseth :     That   the    said   first   party    hereby 

agrees    to,  etc.,      (Here    insert    first   party's 

obligations.) 

In  consideration  of  the  above  being  faithfully  kept 
and  performed  by  the  said  first  party,  the  said  second 
party,  etc.  (Here  insert  second  party's  obligations.) 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  set  our 
hands  and  seals  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

A.  B. 

In  the  presence  of  B.  C. 

C.  D. 

A  seal  on  an  instrument  is  usually  conclusive  proof 
that  it  was  given  for  a  consideration,  but  the  laws  of 
New  York  permit  evidence  to  be  submitted  on  re- 
buttal of  this  presumption. 

PARTNERSHIPS. 

"A  partnership  is  a  contract  between  two  or  more 
competent  persons  for  joining  together  their  money, 
goods,  labor  and  skill,  or  any  or  all  of  them,  under 
an  understanding  that  there  shall  be  a  communion  of 
profit  between  them,  and  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
on  a  legal  trade,  business  or  adventure." — STORY. 

Partners :  Any  person  of  sound  mind  and  able  to 
conduct  ordinary  business  may  enter  into  a  partner- 
ship. An  infant  may  be  a  partner,  but  in  general  he 
could  incur  no  liability  and  might  disaffirm  the  con- 
tract at  any  time.  A  married  woman  can  be  a  part- 


562   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

ner  only  in  such  States  as  have  removed  their  disa- 
bilities. 

Partners  are  grouped  as  follows  :  Ostensible,  those 
whose  names  are  known  and  appear  as  partners  ; 
nominal,  those  who  appear  to  the  world  as  partners, 
but  who  have  really  no  interest  in  the  business. 

Nominal  partners  are  responsible  to  all  creditors 
who  gave  the  firm  credit  because  of  their  apparent 
connection  with  it. 

Dormant  partners  are  those  who  do  not  appear  to 
the  world  as  partners,  but  are  actually  interested  in 
the  business.  They  are  liable  to  creditors  of  the 
business.  Special  partners  are  those  who  supply  a 
certain  amount  of  capital,  and  on  complying  with 
certain  requirements  are  not  liable  for  debts  of  the 
firm  above  the  amount  they  invest. 

Relations  of  partners  :  Mutual  respect,  confidence 
in  the  honesty,  skill,  judgment,  and  good  business 
instinct  of  each  other  must  be  the  basis  of  each  part- 
nership. On  this  account,  if  the  partnership  suffers 
through  the  neglect  of  any  partner,  he  is  liable  to  the 
others.  He  is  liable  in  damages  to  the  other  part- 
ners for  any  breach  of  partnership  contract. 

No  partner  has  any  right  to  engage  in  any  private 
business  that  will  in  any  way  operate  to  the  detriment 
of  the  partnership. 

The  powers  of  all  partners  in  ordinary  cases  are 
equal  and  neither  can  exclude  the  other  from  a  share 
in  the  management  of  the  business  or  from  the  pos- 
session of  partnership  property. 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  563 

A  partnership  can  only  exist  by  voluntary  contract, 
and  no  third  party  can  be  introduced  into  the  firm 
xvithout  unanimous  consent. 

Powers  of  partners :  The  acts  of  one  partner  bind 
all  the  rest.  Each  partner  has  power  to  transact  any 
and  all  necessary  business  for  the  partnership.  The 
frauds  of  one  partner  bind  the  firm,  though  the  others 
have  no  knowledge  of  his  action.  The  partner  should 
transact  all  business  in  the  name  of  the  firm,  other- 
wise he  alone  is  liable.  He  has  no  power  to  bind 
the  partnership  outside  the  transaction  of  the  regular 
business  of  the  firm.  The  fraud  of  a  partner  will  not 
bind  the  partnership  if  the  third  party  is  aware  of 
the  fraud  or  that  the  partner  is  exceeding  his  au- 
thority. Each  partner  is  liable  to  third  parties  for 
partnership  debts  to  the  extent  of  his  whole  private 
property. 

Subject-matter :  By  this  is  meant  the  business  in 
which  they  have  engaged.  The  essence  of  the  con- 
tract is,  that  the  partners  are  jointly  concerned  in 
the  profits  and  losses,  or  at  least  the  profits  of  some 
legitimate  business.  If  the  contract  does  not  specify 
the  manner  of  division,  they  will  be  supposed  to  be 
divided  equally. 

Articles  of  co-partnership. —  If  the  business  is  ex- 
tensive, or  the  relations  to  continue  for  a  great 
length  of  time,  formal  articles  should  be  adopted. 
Any  form  that  clearly  sets  forth  the  nature  of  the 
business,  the  investments  of  each  partner,  the  division 
of  the  profits  and  losses,  the  powers  and  duties  of 


564   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

each  partner,  the  commencement  and  termination  of 
the  partnership  will  answer  the  purpose.  The  part- 
nership commences  at  once  if  no  other  time  is  speci- 
fied. The  laws  of  New  York  prohibit  the  use  of 
fictitious  names  in  the  firm  name.  "  &  Co."  cannot 
there  be  used  unless  it  represent  an  actual  partner. 
If  no  time  is  expressed  for  termination,  the  partner- 
ship is  presumed  to  be  "  at  will  "  only  and  may  be 
dissolved  at  any  time. 

Dissolution. — This  may  take  place  by  acts  of  the 
parties,  by  judicial  decree,  by  operation  of  law. 

A  partnership  may  be  dissolved  at  any  time  by 
mutual  consent.  If  the  partnership  is  for  any 
specified  time  it  may  be  dissolved  by  one  partner 
refusing  to  act  with  the  other,  or  by  his  assigning  his 
share  to  a  third  party.  Such  assignment  does  not 
constitute  the  third  party  a  partner  without  the  con- 
sent of  all  the  others.  A  partnership  for  a  certain 
time,  expires  when  that  period  has  passed. 

The  partnership  could  be  dissolved  by  judicial  de- 
cree at  any  time  for  good  and  sufficient  reasons,  as 
unfitness  or  inability  of  a  partner  developed  after 
the  commencement  of  the  partnership,  or  should  the 
business  be  impracticable  or  when  founded  in  error. 

The  law  would  operate  to  dissolve  the  partnership 
if  one  partner  became  insane,  idiotic,  or  in  any  way 
incapable  of  performing  his  duties. 

All  right,  title  and  interest  of  any  partner  may  be 
sold  under  execution  against  him.  The  bankruptcy 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  565 

of  one  partner  would  dissolve  the  partnership  unless 
provided  for  by  special  agreement. 

After  dissolution  no  power  remains  to  create  new 
obligations,  and  a  partner  could  not  renew  a  partner- 
ship note,  or  even  indorse  one  to  pay  a  prior  debt 
of  the  firm.  Unless  provided  for,  to  the  contrary, 
each  partner  has  power  to  collect  accounts  and  to 
settle  up  the  affairs  of  the  business. 

A  notice  of  dissolution  to  all  persons  dealing  with 
the  firm  is  necessary  when  the  retiring  partner  wishes 
to  avoid  further  liability  for  debts  incurred  by  the 
partnership.  The  retiring  partner  is  already  liable 
for  all  prior  debts.  To  avoid  responsibility,  notice 
must  be  given  to  each  person  who  has  had  dealings 
with  the  partnership.  A  notice  published  in  the 
local  paper  will  do  for  all  subsequent  creditors. 

GUARANTY. 

A  guaranty  is  the  promise  to  answer  for  the  pay- 
ment of  some  debt  or  the  performance  of  some  duty 
or  contract  of  another,  in  case  of  his  failure  to  pay 
or  perform.  Being  in  nature  a  contract  it  must  have 
the  elements  of  a  contract.  The  parties  of  a  guar- 
anty are,  the  debtor,  the  creditor,  and  the  guarantor. 

In  a  written  guarantee  the  consideration  should 
be  expressed. 

All  guarantees  must  have  a  consideration  to  render 
them  valid  and  the  consideration  is  based  on  the 
advantage  to  the  guarantor,  or  the  person  for  whom 


566   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

he  promises,  or  on  a  detriment  to  the  person  to 
whom  he  promises.  Either  will  answer. 

Certain  guarantees  must  be  in  writing.  See 
"Statutes  of  Frauds."  A  verbal  guaranty  is  valid 
when  the  liability  exists  before  the  guarantor  makes 
his  promise  if  the  first  debtor  is  then  discharged  by 
the  new  promise.  Again,  when  the  principal  obliga- 
tion is  void  after  the  new  promise. 

Any  change  in  the  contract  without  the  consent  of 
the  guarantor  will  extinguish  the  guaranty. 

PAYMENTS. 

The  giving  of  a  note  for  a  debt  is  not  a  payment 
unless  the  note  is  paid  at  maturity,  or  there  has  been 
an  express  agreement  to  accept  such  note  in  full 
payment. 

Where  the  amount  of  an  indebtedness  is  mutually 
admitted,  a  part  payment  will  not  discharge  the  debt 
even  if  a  receipt  in  full  is  given,  unless  there  is  a  re- 
lease given  under  seal.  It  would  not  tben,  under 
the  laws  of  Pennsylvania  and  some  other  States.  In 
those  cases  some  minor  article,  as  a  hat,  or  anything 
of  value  to  go  with  the  money,  will  be  necessary  for 
a  full  discharge.  This  rule  would  not  hold  if  the 
payment  were  made  before  the  debt  matured,  or  if 
there  were  any  question  as  to  the  amount  of  indebt- 
edness. When  the  amount  is  in  question,  any  sum 
may  be  accepted  as  payment  in  full.  Chattels  might 
be  taken  in  full  discharge  of  a  debt,  though  not 
worth  anything  like  the  full  amount  of  the  debt. 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  567 

Labor,  irrespective  of  its  value,  may  be  received  in 
full  discharge  of  a  debt.  The  note  of  a  third  party 
for  even  a  less  amount  may  be  accepted,  if  paid  at 
maturity. 

WILLS. 

No  particular  form  of  a  will  is  required.  Any 
words  that  clearly  convey  the  idea  of  the  testator  are 
sufficient. 

Kinds.  —  Unwritten  or  nuncupative  and  written. 
All  wills  must  be  written,  except  those  of  soldiers 
and  sailors  when  in  actual  service,  or  in  some  States 
they  may  be  allowed  in  extreme  cases  when  a  neces- 
sity. The  parties  to  a  will  are  the  testator  or  person 
making  the  will,  the  donee  or  person  benefited  by 
the  will,  and  the  executor  or  person  empowered  to 
see  that  the  provisions  of  the  will  are  carried  out. 

Testator.  —  The  testator  must  be  competent.  In 
New  York,  males  of  18  years  of  age  and  females  of 
1 6  years  of  age  may  dispose  of  personal  property. 
A  married  woman  cannot  make  a  valid  will  without 
the  consent  of  her  husband,  except  in  those  States 
where  their  disabilities  have  been  removed.  The 
testator  must  possess  mind  and  memory  enough  to 
fully  understand  the  nature  and  consequences  of  his 
action. 

Donee. — The  donees  are  the  persons  benefiting 
by  the  will. 

They  are  called  devisees  when  the  gift  is  of  real 
estate,  and  legatees  when  the  gift  is  one  of  personal 
property. 


568   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Any  person  in  general,  capable  of  acquiring  prop- 
erty by  their  own  exertion,  may  be  a  donee.  Cor- 
porations cannot  take  by  will  unless  empowered  to 
do  so  by  their  charters. 

Executor.  —  Any  person  capable  of  making  a  will 
may  be  an  executor. 

He  must  see  that  the  deceased  is  buried  in  a  suita- 
ble manner;  he  must  file  a  bond,  offer  the  will  for 
probate,  make  and  return  an  inventory,  collect  the 
property,  pay  the  debts  and  distribute  the  remainder 
according  to  the  terms  of  the  will.  He  must  render 
an  account  of  all,  and  file  with  the  probate  office. 

Subject-matter. — Little  form  is  necessary  for  dispos- 
ing of  personal  property.  A  will  might  be  accepted 
for  disposing  of  personal  property  when  parts  relat- 
ing to  real  estate  would  not  be  valid. 

By  common  law  the  testator  must  be  possessed  of 
real  estate  he  devises  at  the  time  the  will  is  made. 
By  the  laws  of  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  he  may  devise  any  that 
he  is  possessed  of  at  the  time  of  his  death,  if  that 
was  evidently  his  intention.  The  laws  of  Maine, 
Ohio,  Illinois  and* Connecticut,  are  similar. 

Execution. — The  will  must  be  signed  by  the  testa- 
tor, or  by  some  person  acting  for  him  at  his  request. 
When  he  signs  or  acknowledges  the  will  he  must 
declare  it  to  be  his  last  will. 

It  is  best  to  have  three  witnesses,  though  some 
of  the  States  require  but  two.  The  New  England 
States  and  some  of  the  Southern  States  require 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  569 

three ;  the  Middle  and  Western  States  in  general  re- 
quire two  ;  Louisiana  requires  four  witnesses.  The 
witnesses  must  write  their  names  and  addresses  as 
witnesses.  New  York  prescribes  a  fine  of  fifty  dol- 
lars for  their  failure  to  do  so. 

The  testator  must  sign  or  acknowledge  his  signature 
in  the  presence  of  these  witnesses.  A  codicil  to  be  valid 
must  be  witnessed  with  the  same  formalities  as  the  will. 

A  subsequent  will  revokes  the  preceding  one.  All 
witnesses  should  be  disinterested  parties. 

The  following  States  have  particular  provisions  in 
their  statutes  concerning  wills  : 

New  York. — No  person  having  a  husband,  wife, 
child,  or  parent,  shall  devise  more  than  one-half  of 
his  or  her  estate  to  any  charitable,  literary,  scientific, 
or  kindred  institution.  Should  a  testator  marry  after 
making  a  will  disposing  of  the  whole  of  his  estate, 
and  there  should  be  born  an  issue  of  such  marriage, 
unless  provision  shall  have  been  made  for  such  issue, 
by  settlement,  or  unless  the  will  provides  for  such  issue, 
or  shows  an  intention  not  to  provide  for  such  issue, 
the  will  shall  be  revoked  and  no  other  evidence  shall 
be  submitted  in  rebuttal. 

A  child  born  after  the  making  of  a  will  and  not 
provided  for  by  will  or  settlement,  shall  succeed  to 
such  portion  of  the  estate  as  would  have  fallen  to  it 
had  the  parent  died  intestate. 

A  bequest  to  a  witness  renders  the  will  void  only 
so  far  as  the  witness  and  his  bequest  is  concerned. 
He  is  a  competent  witness  still. 


57O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Colorado, — A  married  man  cannot  by  will  deprive 
his  wife  of  more  than  one  half  his  estate.  A  married 
woman  cannot  deprive  her  husband  of  more  than 
one-half  her  estate  without  his  consent  in  writing. 

Connecticut. — No  bequest  can  be  given  to  a  sub- 
scribing witness,  and  a  subsequent  marriage  or  birth 
of  a  child  revokes  the  will,  unless  specially  provided 
for  therein. 

District  of  Columbia. — Bequests  to  any  minister,, 
teacher,  or  religious  sect  or  denomination,  unless 
made  at  least  one  month  before  the  testator's  death, 
are  void. 

Iowa. — Disposition  of  homestead  or  other  privi- 
leged property  to  wife  and  family  is  void. 

Kansas. — A  married  person  cannot,  without  the 
consent  of  the  husband  or  wife,  dispose  of  more  than 
one-half  of  his  or  her  property. 

Maine. — A  posthumous  child  shares  the  same  as 
though  there  was  no  will,  unless  otherwise  provided 
for. 

Massachusetts. — A  bequest  to  a  subscribing  witness 
is  void,  or  to  the  husband  or  wife  of  such  witness,  un- 
less there  are  three  other  witnesses. 

New  Hampshire. — Bequest  to  subscribing  witness 
void  without  there  are  three  other  subscribing  wit- 
nesses. 

New  Jersey. — Same  as  Maine. 

Pennsylvania. —  Bequest  to  a  charity  within  one 
month  of  testator's  death  is  void. 


THINGS  YOU  SHOULD  KNOW.  571 

GENERAL  FORM  OF  A  WILL. 

I,  A.  B.,  of ,  in  the  county  of ,  and 

State  of ,  do  make  and  publish  this  my  last 

will  and  testament,  as  follows : 

(If  not  first  will,  use  "  hereby  revoking  any  and 
all  former  wills  by  me  at  any  time  made : ") 

1.  I  direct  my  just  debts  and  funeral  expenses  to 
be  paid  out  of  my  estate  as  soon  as  possible  after  my 
decease. 

2.  I  give  and   devise   unto ,  of ,  all 

that  certain  lot,  piece,  or  parcel  of  land  situated 

and   known  as ,   with   the   appurtenances,   to 

have  and  to  hold  the  same,  unto  the  said ,  his 

heirs  and  assigns  forever. 

3.  I  give   and  bequeath  to  my  son,  C.  B.,  the  sum 
of dollars  upon  his  attaining  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years,  and    I    direct  my  said  executor  to  invest 
the  said  sum   from  my  estate  as  soon  as  convenient 
after  my  death  and  to  keep  the  same  invested  until 
he  shall  become  of  age. 

And  in  case  my  said  son  shall  die  before  becoming 
of  age,  and  leaving  no  descendants,  I  direct  the  said 
sum  to  be  divided  among  my  then  surviving  children 
share  and  share  alike. 

4.  I    give   unto    my  son,  J.  B.,  the  sum  of 

dollars. 

5.  I  give  unto  my  daughter,  D.  B., 

6.  All   the  rest,  residue  and  remainder  of  my  real 
and  personal  estate  whatsoever,  which  I  may  own  or 
be  entitled  to  dispose  of  at  the  time  of  my  death,  of 


572   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

what  nature,  kind  and  title  soever  the  same  may  be, 
not  hereinbefore  disposed  of,  I  do  give  and  bequeath 
unto  my  wife,  E.  B.,  her  heirs,  executors,  adminis- 
trators, and  assigns,  to  her  and  for  her  and  their  own 
use  and  benefit  absolutely  forever. 

And  I  hereby  constitute  my  said  wife  the  execu- 
trix of  this  my  will,  and  clothe  her  with  all  necessary 
authority  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  this  my  last 
will  and  testament. 

In  witness  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand 

and  seal  this day  of in  the  year  .... 

A.  B.  [L.  s.] 

The  above  instrument  of  (number  of  sheets)  was, 
at  the  date  thereof,  declared  to  us  by  the  testator, 
A.  B.,  to  be  his  last  will  and  testament,  and  he  then 
acknowledged  to  each  of  us  that  he  had  subscribed 
the  same,  and  we,  at  his  request,  sign  our  names 
thereto  as  attesting  witnesses. 

L.  M., 

Residing  at 

J.  K., 

Residing  at 

D.  A., 

Residing  at 

BEQUEST  TO  WIFE  IN  LIEU  OF  DOWER. 
Item. —  I  give  and  devise   unto   my  said  wife   all 
that  lot,  piece  or  parcel   of  land  (describe  it),  with 
all  the  appurtenances,  to  have  and  to  hold  the  same, 
her  heirs  and  assigns  forever. 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  573 

Which  said  legacy  given  to  my  said  wife  I  hereby 
declare  is  intended  to  be,  and  is  so  given  to  her,  in 
full  satisfaction  and  recompense  of  and  for  her  dower 
and  thirds  which  she  may  or  in  any  wise  claim  or 
demand  out  of  my  estate. 

Item. —  I  give  and  devise  all,  etc. 

A  devise  to  the  widow  in  lieu  of  dower  must  be 
plainly  set  forth  as  such,  as  otherwise  she  may  be 
allowed  both  the  devise  and  the  dower. 

RIGHTS  OF  MARRIED  WOMEN. 

Alabama. —  Husband  is  not  liable  for  her  debts 
incurred  prior  to  marriage.  Her  property  held  before 
and  after  marriage  is  secured  to  her  separate  use. 
The  husband  is  her  trustee. 

Arkansas. —  Her  estate,  both  real  and  personal, 
is  her  sole  property  and  she  may  sue  and  be  sued 
on  account  thereof. 

.California. — All  property  acquired  prior  to  mar- 
riage is  hers  and  may  be  controled  by  her  as  before. 
All  property  acquired  after  marriage  is  common  to 
both.  Upon  death  of  either  party  one-half  the  estate 
goes  to  the  survivor. 

Colorado. —  Same  as  though  unmarried,  except  that 
she  cannot  bequeath  away  from  her  husband  more 
than  one-half  her  estate  without  his  consent. 

Connecticut. —  Neither  party  acquires  by  marriage 
any  right  to  the  estate  (with  some  exceptions)  of  the 
other.  Her  earnings  are  her  own. 


574   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

She  may  convey  property  or  contract  with  third 
parties  as  though  unmarried.  Her  property  is  not 
liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband,  and  he  is  bound 
to  support  the  family.  The  use  of  one-third  of  his 
estate,  on  his  death,  cannot  be  defeated  by  will.  If 
no  will  is  left  she  takes  the  third  absolutely.  A 
legacy  may  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  dower.  Accepting 
the  legacy  voids  the  dower  right. 

Dakota. — Has  the  same  rights  as  an  unmarried 
woman;  she  may  make  contracts  with  her  husband  as 
though  unmarried.  Dower  and  curtesy  are  abolished. 
She  attains  her  majority  at  eighteen. 

Delaware. —  Real  and  personal  property  acquired 
at  any  time  from  any  person,  but  her  husband,  are 
her  sole  and  separate  property.  She  is  not  liable  for 
his  debts.  If  twenty-one  years  of  age,  she  has  all 
the  rights  of  an  unmarried  woman. 

District  of  Columbia.  —  Her  earnings  are  her  hus- 
band's. Property  acquired  at  any  time  and  from  any 
person  but  her  husband  is  hers,  and  she  may  con- 
tract, sue  and  be  sued  in  her  own  name  in  any 
matter  relating  to  her  separate  estate. 

Florida.  —  Property,  both  real  and  personal,  is  her 
separate  estate.  It  must  be  inventoried  and  recorded 
in  the  clerk's  office  to  be  exempt  from  her  husband's 
debts.  Her  husband  must  join  with  her  in  convey- 
ing her  separate  estate.  Dower  right  of  one-third. 
She  may  dispose  of  her  property  by  will,  as  though 
unmarried. 

Georgia.  —  Her  earnings  to  the  extent  of  $2,000 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  575 

are  her  own.  Property  coming  to  her  either  before 
or  after  marriage,  is  her  separate  estate  and  not 
liable  for  the  debts  of  husband.  She  may  sue  and 
be  sued  with  regard  to  her  estate  and  make  a  will 
with  the  consent  of  her  husband. 

Idaho.  —  All  property  owned  by  either  husband  or 
wife  prior  to  marriage  or  acquired  by  devise  or  de- 
scent after  marriage,  is  separate  estate.  The  wife's 
property  must  be  inventoried  and  recorded.  The 
husband  controls  her  separate  estate,  but  cannot  sell 
without  her  consent.  Property  acquired  after  mar- 
riage, except  as  above,  is  common.  On  death  of 
husband,  half  the  common  property  goes  to  the  wife, 
if  there  are  descendants;  if  no  descendants,  all  goes 
to  her.  All  common  property  goes  to  husband  on 
death  of  wife. 

Illinois.  —  She  may  make  a  will.  She  has  her 
separate  estate.  She  may  contract,  sue  and  be  sued 
in  all  matters  relating  to  her  separate  property. 

Indiana.  —  She  holds  both  her  real  and  personal 
property  as  separate  estate,  not  having  power  to  sell 
or  incumber  the  real  estate  unless  the  husband  joins 
with  her.  She  may  carry  on  any  business  pertaining 
to  her  estate  and  sue  and  be  sued  thereon.  She 
may  make  a  will.  Dower  and  curtesy  are  abolished. 
She  takes  as  fee  on  the  death  of  the  husband,  one- 
third  of  the  real  estate  free  from  creditors,  when  it 
does  not  exceed  $10,000,  one-fourth  when  it  does  not 
exceed  $20,000,  one-fifth  when  it  exceeds  $20,000. 
.She  is  eligible  to  any  office  under  school  laws. 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Iowa.  —  Her  real  and  personal  estate  are  her  sepa- 
rate property.  She  may  dispose  of  it  about  as  freely 
as  though  unmarried.  Her  wages  are  her  own. 
The  family  expenses  are  chargeable  to  the  estate  of 
either  or  both.  She  may  receive  gifts  from  her  hus- 
band. Each  has  the  same  right  of  dower. 

Kansas.  —  A  married  woman  has  all  the  right  to 
her  earnings,  real  estate  and  personal  property,  as 
an  unmarried  woman,  except  that  she  cannot  deprive 
her  husband  of  more  than  one-half  of  it  by  will  with- 
out his  consent.  If  either  die  without  will  and 
without  issue  the  survivor  takes  all  the  property. 
She  cannot  be  deprived  by  will  of  more  than  one- 
half  their  property. 

Kentucky. —  Her  real  and  personal  property  are 
her  separate  estate.  The  husband  has  the  right  to 
their  use  and  can  rent  the  real  estate  for  three  years 
at  a  time.  Her  estate  is  liable  for  necessaries  for 
the  family.  Property  derived  by  her  from  inherit- 
ance cannot  be  disposed  of  without  consent  of  the 
husband.  Husband  succeeds  to  deceased  wife's  per- 
sonal estate.  She  may  make  a  will.  She  succeeds 
to  one-half  her  husband's  personal  estate  if  he  leave 
no  issue,  and  one-third  if  he  leaves  issue. 

Louisiana. —  A  married  woman  may  make  a  will. 
The  law  is  very  complex  and  her  powers  under  it 
limited.  Property  owned  in  this  State  by  non-resi- 
dents is  subject  to  the  same  regulations  as  though 
held  by  residents.  Non-residents  should  exercise 
care  in  this  respect. 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  577 

Maine. — A  married  woman  holds  as  her  separate 
estate  all  property  derived  from  whatever  source, 
except  through  her  husband,  or  coming  from  him  to 
defraud  creditors.  She  may  contract,  sue,  and  be 
sued  on  matters  pertaining  to  her  estate.  She  is  of 
legal  age  though  she  may  be  under  twenty-one  years. 

Maryland. — A  married  woman  may  make  a  will  if 
eighteen  years  of  age. 

Her  property,  both  real  and  personal,  and  when- 
ever acquired  is  her  separate  estate.  It  is  not  liable 
for  the  debts  of  the  husband. 

Her  income  and  earnings  are  her  own  and  she  may 
dispose  of  them  as  though  unmarried.  Except  as 
above  the  husband  must  join  in  disposing  of  the 
estate.  She  may  release  her  dower  right,  either  by 
separate  deed  or  jointly  with  her  husband. 

Massachusetts. —  The  real  and  personal  property 
of  a  married  woman  remains  her  separate  estate. 
She  may  make  contracts  with  all  but  her  husband. 
Her  wages  are  her  own  unless  by  special  agreement. 

She  cannot  acquire  from  her  husband  by  gift,  ex- 
cept "  articles  of  use  and  personal  adornment,"  and 
these  are  limited  to  $2,000. 

She  may  sue  and  be  sued  as  though  unmarried  and 
make  a  will,  but  cannot  bequeath  from  her  husband 
more  than  one-half  of  her  personal  property  nor  de- 
prive him  of  his  tenancy  in  her  real  estate. 

If  she  wishes  to  engage  in  business  separately,  she 
must  file  a  certificate  with  the  clerk  of  the  town  or 
city  where  she  does  business  setting  forth  the  nature 


578   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

of  the  business  and  her  name  and  that  of  her  hus- 
band's. If  this  is  not  done  the  property  may  be  at- 
tached for  the  debts  of  the  husband  and  the  husband 
may  be  held  liable  for  the  contracts  made  in  carrying 
out  the  business. 

Aside  from  the  above,  neither  is  liable  for  the 
debts  of  the  other. 

If  the  husband  dies  leaving  no  issue,  the  widow 
takes  his  real  estate  in  fee  to  the  extent  of  $5,000, 
and  also  has  a  life  interest  in  all  other  real  estate, 
unless  she  shall  elect  to  take  her  dower  rights  in  lieu 
thereof.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the  husband  if 
she  dies  intestate.  If  she  die  without  will,  leaving 
issue,  he  takes  one-half  her  personal  estate  ;  if  she 
leaves  no  issue,  he  takes  all  the  personal  estate. 

Michigan. — A  married  woman  has  the  same  right 
to  her  property,  both  real  and  personal,  as  though 
unmarried.  She  may  make  contracts  and  carry  on 
business  pertaining  to  the  separate  estate,  but  cannot 
bind  it  except  in  reference  to  her  own  business.  She 
has  right  of  dower. 

Minnesota. — A  married  woman  has  full  control 
over  her  separate  estate,  except  that  she  cannot  con- 
vey the  realty  unless  the  husband  joins  her  in  the 
deed.  She  may  make  any  contract  she  might  make 
if  unmarried.  She  attains  her  full  legal  age  at  eigh- 
teen years. 

Mississippi. — The  married  woman  has  all  her  disa- 
bilities removed. 

Conveyance  between  husband  and  wife  must  be 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  579 

recorded  and  acknowledged.  The  widow  shares 
equally  with  each  child,  and  if  no  children  are  left, 
takes  the  whole  property  in  fee. 

Missouri.  —  The  real  and  personal  property  of  a 
married  woman  are  her  separate  estate,  and  she  may 
make  contracts  and  dispose  of  the  same. 

Montana.  —  The  married  woman  controls  her  sepa- 
rate estate.  It  is  not  liable  for  debts  of  the  husband 
unless  contracted  for  her  or  children  under  eighteen 
years.  A  list  of  her  property  must  be  recorded. 

If  she  engages  in  business,  she  must  file  a  state- 
ment setting  forth  her  intention  and  nature  of  the 
business.  May  dispose  of  any  property  by  will  if 
over  eighteen  years  of  age.  Dower  abolished. 

The  survivor  has  one-half  the  property  of  the 
other  if  there  is  no  issue  ;  if  issue,  one-third.  On 
death  of  husband,  one-half  the  common  property  goes 
to  widow. 

Nebraska.  —  A  married  woman  has  full  control  of 
her  property  and  earnings.  She  may  make  a  will. 
She  attains  full  legal  age  at  sixteen  years  if  married ; 
otherwise  at  eighteen  years. 

New  Hampshire.  —  A  married  woman  has  the 
same  control  of  her  property  and  earnings  as  though 
unmarried.  She  cannot  receive  real  estate  directly 
from  husband.  She  may  make  a  will. 

New  Jersey.  —  A  married  woman  holds  her  sepa- 
rate estate,  but  cannot  convey  realty  without  her 
husband  joining.  She  may  make  contracts  for  her 
separate  estate,  and  sue  and  be  sued  thereon.  She 


A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

cannot  become  responsible  as  surety.  She  may  make 
a  will,  but  cannot  deprive  her  husband  of  his  rights 
in  her  real  estate. 

New  York.  —  A  married  woman  controls  her  sepa- 
rate estate,  and  is  not  liable  for  the  debts  of  her  hus- 
band. She  cannot  acquire  property  directly  from 
him.  She  may  sue  and  be  sued  in  regard  to  her  per- 
son or  her  property-  She  may  make  a  will.  She 
may  give  power  of  attorney. 

North  Carolina.  — All  property  of  a  married  woman 
is  her  separate  estate.  She  must  have  her  husband's 
written  consent  to  make  contracts  for  the  same.  She 
may  make  a  will  and  convey  her  property  with  his 
consent. 

Ohio.  —  A  married  woman  has  the  same  control  of 
her  earnings  and  property  as  though  unmarried.  She 
may  make  a  will.  She  attains  her  majority  at  eighteen 
years.  Husband  is  not  liable  for  her  contracts. 

Pennsylvania.  —  The  separate  property  of  a  mar- 
ried woman  is  not  liable  for  her  husband's  debts. 
Her  property  may  be  charged  with  necessaries  fur- 
nished herself  or  her  family.  Her  note  is  not  valid. 
Her  earnings  belong  to  her  husband.  Her  husband 
must  join  with  her  in  conveying  her  estate.  She  may 
make  a  will  subject  to  his  rights  of  curtesy. 

Rhode  Island.  —  The  property  of  a  married  woman 
is  not  liable  for  the  support  of  herself,  her  family,  or 
the  debts  of  her  husband,  and  after  his  death  belongs 
to  her  solely.  Her  note  is  not  valid. 

Money  in  savings  banks,  mortgages,  jewels,  furni- 


THINGS    YOU    SHOULD    KNOW.  581 

ture,  etc.,  can  only  be  disposed  of  by  joint  deed  with 
her  husband.  All  other  personal  property  of  her  es- 
tate she  has  control  of  as  though  unmarried. 

She  may  make  a  will,  but  cannot  deprive  her  hus- 
band of  curtesy. 

Vermont.  — -A  married  woman's  separate  property 
is  not  liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband,  her  sup- 
port, or  the  support  of  her  children. 

Husband  must  join  in  conveying  her  real  estate. 
Dower  is  allowed  only  in  the  real  estate  of  which  her 
husband  dies  possessed. 

She  cannot  contract  except  under  certain  condi- 
tions. She  may  make  a  will.  She  attains  her  ma- 
jority at  eighteen  years. 

Virginia. — The  separate  property  of  a  married 
woman  is  not  liable  for  her  husband's  debts.  She 
may  sue  and  be  sued  in  relation  thereto,  but  her  hus- 
band must  join  with  her  in  any  contracts  relating  to 
her  estate.  She  may  make  a  will  but  cannot  deprive 
her  husband  of  his  curtsey. 

West  Virginia. — The  separate  estate  of  a  married 
woman  is  free  from  the  debts  or  control  of  her  hus- 
band. If  living  apart  from  her  husband,  she  has  full 
control  of  her  estate,  otherwise  he  must  join  her  in 
the  conveyance.  She  may  sue  and  be  sued  in  rela- 
tion to  her  separate  estate.  She  may  make  a  will. 

Wisconsin. — A  married  woman  has  all  the  rights 
over  her  estate  of  an  unmarried  woman,  and  may 
deal  with  her  husband  as  with  a  stranger.  A  deed 


582   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

or  mortgage  of  the  homestead  is  not  valid  without 
her  signature. 

Wyoming. — A  married  woman  has  nearly  all  the 
rights  of  an  unmarried  one.  She  may  vote  and  hold 
office. 


ESSENTIALS   OF   LETTER   WRITING. 

CAPITAL  LETTERS. 
A  word  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter  : 

1.  When  the  first  word  in  a  sentence. 

2.  When  it  is  a  proper  name. 

Example:  Boston  —  New  York  —  Chicago. 

3.  When  it  is  immediately  derived  from  a  proper 
name. 

Example:  English  —  Russian  —  American. 

4.  When  it  is  a  name  of  the  Deity. 

Example:  God — Savior — Holy  One. 

5.  When  it  is  the  name  of  a  sect,  denomination,  or 
political  party. 

Example:  Methodist  —  Whig —  Republican —  Democrat. 

6.  The  words  North,  South,  East,  and  West  when 
they  refer  to  a  section  or  division  of  country,  but  not 
when  they  indicate  direction  alone.    • 

Example:  The  riches  of  the  East  —  A  south  wind. 

7.  When  the  title  of  a  person. 

Example:  Colonel  Esmond  —  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson. 

8.  When  the  title  of  a  book  or  one  of    the  princi- 
pal words  in  such  title. 

Example:  "  Bancroft's  History  of  the  United  States." 


ESSENTIALS    OF    LETTER    WRITING.  583 

9.  When  the  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation. 

Example:  "  He  who  will,  can." 

10.  When  the  first  word  in  a  line  of  poetry. 

Example:  "  Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us, 
We  can  make  our  lives  sublime." 

1 1.  When  it  is  the  name  of  a  geographical  division. 

Example:  Gulf  of  Lyons  —  Red  Sea  —  Isle  of  Man. 

12.  When  the  first  word  in  a  broken  line,  as  the 
address  or  signature  of  a  letter,  or  the  principal  word 
of  such  line. 

Example:  I  am,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant. 

13.  When  the  chief  article  mentioned  in  an  account. 

Example:  7  Ibs.  of  Coffee  —  To  Storage  and  Advertising. 

14.  When  following  the  words,  Resolved,  Witness- 
eth,  Whereas,  etc. 

Example:  Resolved,  That,  etc. 

15.  When  it  is  a  common  noun  fully  personified. 

Example:  "When  Freedom  from  her  mountain  height." 

1 6.  Nearly  all  abbreviations  should  begin  with  a 
capital  letter. 

Example:  Agt. —  Acct. —  Supt. —  Atty. 

Do  not  use  a  capital  letter  when  in  doubt  as  to  its 
propriety. 

PUNCTUATION. 

In  the  use  of  Marks  of  Punctuation,  all  good  writers 
do  not  agree ;  and  their  rules  are  not  like  those  of 
mathematics,  unchangeable. 


584   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

The  usage  of  to-day  is  not  that  of  the  past  and  will 
not  be  that  of  the  future. 

The  following  rules  are  the  most  important  and 
are  compiled  from  the  best  modern  authorities  : 

Rules. 
A  period  should  be  placed  — 

1.  After  every  declarative  and  imperative  sentence. 

Example:  I  saw  him  go. —  Close  the  door. 

2.  After  all  abbreviations. 

Example:  Mdse. —  Amt. —  Ph.  D. —  LL.  D. 

3.  After  numbers  written  in  the  Roman  notation. 

Example:  XIX.— Psalm  XC. 

Colon. 

A  colon  is  placed  after  a  sentence  which  formally 
introduces  a  distinct  quotation. 

Example:  We  are  often  reminded  of  this  remark  of  Marshal 
Lannes:  "Know,  Colonel,  that  none  but  a  poltroon  would 
boast  that  he  was  never  afraid." 

The  colon  may  be  used  to  separate  the  great  parts 
of  a  long  complex  sentence  when  the  minor  sentences 
therein  are  separated  by  the  semicolon. 

The  colon  is  passing  out  of  use,  its  place  being 
taken-  by  the  dash,  the  semicolon,  and  the  period. 

Semicolon. 

i.  A  semicolon  is  placed  before  as,  to  wit,  viz., 
namely,  and  that  is  when  they  introduce  examples  or 
illustrations. 

Example:  Every  solid  has  three  dimensions;  namely,  length, 
breadth,  and  thickness. 


ESSENTIALS    OF    LETTER   WRITING.  585 

2.  Place  a  semicolon   at  the  close  of  a  sentence 
which  by  its  terms  promises  another  sentence. 

Example:  "  Tic-tac,  Tic-tac,  go  the  wheels  of  thought;  our 
will  cannot  stop  them;  they  cannot  stop  themselves;  sleep 
cannot  still  them;  madness  only  makes  them  go  faster; 
death  alone  can  break  into  the  case," 

3.  A  semicolon  may  be  used  to  separate  short  sen- 
tences which  have  but  a  slight  connection  with  each 
other. 

Example:  He  was  a  poor  boy;  he  had  no  showy  accomplish- 
ments; he  had  no  influential  friends;  but  he  was  rich  in 
youth,  courage,  and  honesty  of  purpose. 

Comma. 

1.  Set  off  by  the  comma  an  explanatory  modifier 
when  it  does  not  restrict  the  modified  term. 

Example:  The  order,  to  fire,  was  given. 

2.  Set  off  by  the  comma  a  word  or  phrase  that  is 
independent. 

Example:  To  tell  the  truth,  he  was  not  at  home. 

3.  Set  off  by  the  comma  a  phrase  that  is  out  of  its 
natural  order. 

Example:  Shifting  his  burden,  he  hurried  on 

4.  Set  off  by  the  comma  a  participle  used  as  an 
adjective. 

Example:  The  water,  expanding,  burst  the  pipe. 

5.  Set   off   by   the   comma   connected   words   and 
phrases  unless  the  conjunctions  are  all  expressed. 

Example:  "  From  the  mountain,  from  the  river,  from  the  hill, 
and  from  the  plain,  we  are  sweeping  to  the  rescue," 


586   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

6.  A  comma  is  used  before  a  direct  quotation  un- 
less it   is  formally   introduced.     Greely  said,   "  The 
way  to  resume  is  to  resume." 

7.  Set  off  by  commas  all  parenthetical  expressions 
and  the  following  words  when  used  as  such;   how- 
ever, that  is,  indeed,  of  course,  finally,  again,  first, 
second,  also,  therefore,  yes,  no,  too,  etc. 

Example:  He  is,  indeed,  worthy. 

8.  Use  the  comma  after  as,  viz.,   to-wit,  namely, 
and  that  is,  when  they  introduce  examples. 

Example:  We  will  promote  the  man;  that  is,  if  he  is  worthy. 

9.  The  parts  of  a  complex    sentence   should    be 
separated  by  a  comma  when  the  auxiliary  precedes 
tins. principal  sentence. 

Example:  If  the  messenger  calls,  give  him  the  letter. 

10.  Separate  by  the  comma  a  phrase  or  sentence 
used  as  a  subject  and  its  verb. 

Example:  "That  all  men  are  created  equal,  is  a  self-evident 
truth." 

11.  Words  used  in  direct  address  should  be  separ- 
ated by  the  comma. 

Example:  "Stranger,  I  am  Roderick  Dhu." 

Interrogation. 

1 .  Use  the  interrogation  point  after  a  word,  phrase, 
or  sentence  by  which  a  question  is  asked. 

Example:  Now?     For  me?    When  do  you  go? 

2.  An    interrogation   enclosed  in  parentheses   de- 
notes doubt. 

Example:   Your  friend  (?)  told  me  this. 


ESSENTIALS   OF    LETTER    WRITING.  587 

Exclamation. 

1.  Use  the  exclamation  point  after  a  word,  phrase, 
or  sentence  whose   principal   function   seems   to  be 
that  of  expressing  sudden  and  intense  emotion. 

Example:  "To  arras  !  they  come  !  the  Greek  !  the  Greek  !" 

2.  An    exclamation   point   placed   in   parentheses 
denotes  peculiar  surprise. 

Dash. 

1.  A  dash  is  usually  placed  before  the  answer  to  a 
question  when  both  are  on  the  same  line. 

Example:  Are  you  acquainted  with  the  defendant? — I  am. 

2.  A  dash  is  often  used  in  place  of  the  parentheses, 

Example:  With  a  firm  step  —  for  he  was  brave  —  he  advanced. 

3.  Use   the   dash  where   there  is  an  omission  of 
such  words  ;  as,  namely,  that,  is,  as,  introducing  equiva- 
lent  expressions   and   when    letters   or   figures    are 
omitted. 

Example:  "Some  wit  has  divided  the  world  into  two  classes 

—  the   wise   and    the    otherwise."      General    M was 

present. 

4.  Use  the  dash  when  there  is  a  sudden  transition. 

Example:  We  have  learned  the  bitter  lesson  —  let  us  bury  the 
past. 

Parenthesis. 

The  marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  enclose  what 
has  no  essential  connection  with  the  rest  of  the 
sentence. 

Example:  We  have  been  sorely  deceived  (and  who  has  not) 
but  we  have  not  lost  all  faith. 


588   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Present  usage  seems  to  avoid  the  distinctive  marks; 
their  place  being  taken  by  the  comma  and  dash. 

Apostrophe. 

Use  the  apostrophe  to  denote  the  omission  of  a 
letter,  to  indicate  the  possessive  case,  and  to  form 
the  plurals  of  letters,  figures,  and  characters. 

Example:  'Tis  done. —  The  king's  edict  has  gone  forth. —  Can 
you  say  the  g's  ? 

Quotation. 

1.  Use  the   quotation   marks   to  enclose  a  direct 
quotation. 

Example:  "  Quoth  the  raven,  'Nevermore.'" 

2.  Quotations  within  quotations  are  set  off  by  sin- 
gle marks  ;  as  in  the  above  example. 

Hyphen. 

Use  the  hyphen  to  join  the  parts  of  compound 
words  and  between  the  syllables  when  a  word  is 
divided. 

Example:    Dr.   Brown-Sequard.     Caution.     A  syllable  must 
not  be  divided 

Paragraph. 

The  paragraph  is  used  to  indicate  a  new  subject 
of  remark.  The  sign  is  retained  in  the  Holy  Scripture 
but  in  ordinary  composition  is  indicated  to  the  eye 
by  beginning  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  marginal  line 
of  the  page. 


ESSENTIALS   OF    LETTER    WRITING.  589 

A  paragraph  is  a  group  of  sentences  bound  by  the 
thought  which  they  jointly  express  and  is  almost 
necessary  to  express  the  beginning  and  end  of  each 
subject  of  remark. 

General  Rule  of  Punctuation: — Punctuate  wher- 
ever needed  to  make  your  meaning  clear. 

RULES  FOR  SPELLING. 

1.  Words  of  one  syllable  and  words  accented  on 
the  last  syllable  ending  in  a  single  consonant  after  a 
single  vowel,  double  the  consonant  on  taking  another 
syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel. 

Example:   Rob  —  robber. 

2.  Words  ending  in  final  e  usually  drop  it  on  tak- 
ing another  syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel. 

Example:  Come  —  coming. 

3.  Words  ending  in  ce  and  ge  retain  the  e  before 
able  and  ous. 

Example:  Peace  —  peaceable;  courage  —  courageous. 

4.  Final  e  of  a  primitive  word  is  usually  retained 
on  taking  another  syllable  beginning  with  a  consonant. 

Example:  Love  —  lovely;  pale  —  paleness.    Exception:  Truly, 
duly,  judgment,  acknowledgment. 

5.  The  plural  of  nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  conso- 
nant is  formed  by  changing  y  into  i  and  adding  es. 

Example:  City  —  cities;  supply  —  supplies. 

6.  The  plurals  of  nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  vowel 
are  formed  in  the  usual  manner  by  adding  s  to  the 
singular. 

Example:  Valley  —  valleys. 


59O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

7.  The  final  y  of  a  primitive  word,  when  preceded 
by  a  consonant,  is  usually  changed  into  i  before  an- 
other syllable. 

Example:  Merry  —  merrily;  but  before  ing  the  y  is  retained  to 
prevent  doubling  the  i. 

8.  The  word  "  full,"  when  used  as  an  affix,  drops 
one  /and  the  plurals  of  its  compounds  are  formed  in 
the  usual  manner  by  adding  s  to  the  singular. 

Example:  Thankful  (1)  —  cupful  —  cupfuls. 

COMMON  ERRORS  IN  PRONUNCIATION. 

1.  Do  not  clip  final  consonants,  as  goin'  for  going. 

How  do  you  pronounce  — coming,  singing,  walking,  talking? 

2.  Do  not  sound  ow  like  ur  or  uh  ;  as  shad  ur,  or 
shad  uh  for  shad  ow. 

Pronounce —  Bellow,  fellow,  yellow,  pillow,  mellow,  swallow. 

3.  Do  not  sound  ed  like  id  or  ud ;  as  delight  id, 
for  delight  ed. 

Pronounce  —  United,  provided,  decided,    subsided,   righted, 
excited,  exhausted. 

Are  jjw/  guilty  of  such  offenses  as : 

4.  Giving  short  0,  unaccented,  the  sound  of  short 
u  ;  as  ub  tuse,  for  ob  tuse  ;  ub  tain,  for  ob  tain  ? 

Pronounce  —  Obscure,  observe,  obtain,  occur,  occasion,  com- 
pel, condition,  object,  conceit,  compare,  condense. 

5.  Giving  to  a,  unaccented,  as  in  car,  the  sound  of 
u  short ;  as  u  bate,  for  a  bate  ;  u  bandon,  for  a  bandon. 

Pronounce  —  Abase,   abeam,    abet,    abolish,   abode,    around, 
amuse. 


ESSENTIALS    OF    LETTER    WRITING.  591 

6.  Giving  long  o,  unaccented,  the  sound  of  short 
u  ;  as  u  bey,  for  o  bey ;  u  bedience,  for  o  bedience. 

Pronounce  —  Position,  society,  melody,  opinion,  provide. 

7.  Omitting  the  sounds  of  d  or  t  among  terminal 
letters  ;  as  bils,  for  builds ;  ros's,  for  roasts. 

Pronounce — Fields,  toasts,  exhausts,  holds,  scolds,  ghosts. 

8.  Omitting  the  sound  of  r  following  a  vowel ;  as 
ahmy,  for  army. 

Pronounce  —  Harder,    order,    larder,    board,    lord,    remark, 
report,  cord,  sword. 

9.  Sounding  it  for  et  and  il  for  el;  as  rack  it,  for 
rack  et. 

Pronounce  —  Gruel,  blanket,  longest,  strongest,  basket,  ticket, 
thickest,  honest,  smallest. 

10.  Giving  unt  for  ent,  or  unce  for  ence  ;  as  re  sunt, 
for  re  cent ;  sen  tunce,  for  sent  ence. 

1 1.  Giving  oo  for  long  u;  as  bloo,  for  blue  ;  doo  ty, 
for  du  ty. 

Pronounce  —  Tumor,  tulip,  tumult,  sue,  suet,  suit. 

12.  Drawling  the  vowels,  ow,  ew  and  ou  ;  as  haoo 
for  how. 

Pronounce  —  Pound,  cow,  house,  mound,  found,  sound,  bow, 
vow. 


592     A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

A. 

Abdomen,  ab-d5'men,  not  ab'do-mSn. 

abjectly,  ab'ject-li,  not  ab-ject'li. 

absolutory,  ab-sol'u-to-ry,  not  ab-so-lu'to-ry. 

abstemious,  ab-ste'ml-us,  not  ab-stem'-i-us. 

acclimate,  ac-cli'mat,  not  ac'cll-mat. 

accent  (verb),  ak-sent,  not  ak'sent. 

accost,  ak-k5st',  not  ak-kawst'. 

acorn,  a'korn,  not  a'kurn. 

acoustics,  a-kows'tiks,  not  a-koos'tiks. 

across,  a-kros',  not  a-krawst'. 

address  (noun  and  verb),  ad-dress',  not  ad'dres. 

adult,  a-dult',  not  a'dult  nor  ad'ult. 

adverse,  ad'vers,  not  ad-vers". 

again,  a-gen',  not  a-gan'  nor  a-gln' 

aged,  a'jed,  not  ajd. 

agriculturist,  ag-ri-kult'ur-ist,  not  ag-ri-kult'ur-al-ist. 

albumen,  al-bu'men,  not  al'bu-men. 

aliment,  al'i-ment,  not  al-i-ment. 

allegro,  al-le'gro,  not  al'le-gro. 

allies  (noun  and  verb),  al-liz',  not  al'liz. 

allopathist,  al-lop'a-thist,  not  al'lo-path-ist. 

allopathy,  al-lop'a-thl,  not  al'lo-path-i. 

ally  (noun  and  verb),  al-ll',  not  al'll. 

alpaca,  al-pak'a,  not  al-a-pak'-a. 

alternate  (adj.  and  noun),  al-ter'nat,  not  awl-ter'nat. 

ameliorate,  a-mel'yo-rat,  not  a-mel'1-o-rat. 

amenable,  a-me'na-bl,  not  a-men'a-bl. 

amour,  a-moor',  not  am'oor. 

antipodes,  an-tip'o-dez',  not  an'  ti-p5dz. 

apostle,  a-pos'l,  not  a-pos'tl  nor  a-paws'l. 

Appalachian,  ap-pa-la'chi-an,  not  ap-pa-la'kl-an. 

apparatus,  ap-pa-ra'tus,  not  ap-pa-ra'tus. 

Arabic,  ar'a-bik,  «^/a-ra'bik. 

architect,  ar'kl-tekt,  not  arch'i-tekt. 

arctic,  ark'tik,  not  ar'tik. 

ale,  at,  are,  all,  eve,  gnd,  hgr,  Ice,  Ink,  Own,  8n,  6T>ze, 


PRONUNCIATION.  593 

aroma,  a-ro'ma,  not  a'ro-ma. 
arrow,  ar'row,  not  ar'row. 
Asia,  a'shi-a,  not  a'zha  nor  a'zhe-a. 
assets,  as'sets,  not  as-sets'. 
attacked,  at-takt',  not  at-tak'ted. 

B. 

bade,  bad,  not  bad. 

badinage,  bad-I-nazh'  or  bad'I-nazh,  not  bad'in-aj. 

bath,  bath,  not  bath. 

behemoth,  be'he-moth,  not  be-he'moth. 

beloved  (adjective),  be-luv'ed. 

beloved  (verb),  be-luvd'. 

beneath,  be-neM',  not  be-neth'. 

biography,  bl-og'ra-fy,  not  bl-og'ra-fy. 

bitumen,  bl-tu'men,  not  bit'u-men. 

blasphemy,  blas'fe-ml,  not  blas-fe'ml. 

bleat,  blet,  not  blaat. 

blouse,  blowz,  not  blows. 

bouquet,  boo-ka',  not  bo-ka'. 

bourn,  born,  not  boom. 

bromide,  bro'mid,  not  bro'mld. 

bronchitis,  bron-kl'tis,  not  bron-k6'tis. 

brougham,  broo'am. 

buoy,  bwoi,  not  boi  nor  bool. 

Burgundy,  bur'gun-dl,  not  bur-gun'dl. 

c. 

cadi,  ka'dl,  not  ka'dl. 

caisson,  kas'son. 

Canaanite,  ka'nan-lt,  not  ka'na-5n-It. 

canaille,  ka-nal'  or  ka-na'il,  not  ka-nel'. 

canine,  ka-nin',  not  ka'nin. 

capitoline,  kap'i-to-lin,  not  kap-i-to'lin. 

carbonaceous,  kar-bo-na'shus,  not  kar-bo-na'se-us. 

Caucasian,  kaw-ka'shan,  not  kaw-kash'an. 

catch,  k2ch,  not  k6ch. 

cayenne,  ka-en',  not  ki-en'  nor  ki-an'. 

hot)d,  use,  up,  ow-1,  aw-1,  th-z,  th-ink,  go,  ch-at. 

38 


594   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

chasten,  chas'n,  not  chas'n. 

chicanery,  she-kan'er-i,  not  shl-kan'er-I. 

chimpanzee,  chim-pan'ze,  not  shim-pan'ze. 

Chinese,  chi-nez',  not  chi-nes'. 

chirography,  kl-rog'ra-fi,  not  chi-rog'ra-fi. 

chloride,  klo'rid,  not  klo'rld. 

chlorine,  klo'rln,  not  klo'rin. 

clandestine,  klan-des'tin,  not  klan-des'tln. 

cleanly  (adjective),  klen'll. 

cleanly  (verb),  klen'll. 

coadjutant,  ko-ad'ju-tant,  not  ko-ad-ju'tant. 

coadjutor,  ko-ad-ju'tor,  not  ko-ad'ju-tor. 

coffee,  kof'e,  not  kaw'fe, 

coffin,  kSf'in,  not  kawf'in. 

combatant,  kom'ba-tant  or  kum'ba-tant,  not  kom-bat'ant. 

comely,  kum'li,  not  not  kom'li. 

compromise,  kom'pro-miz,  not  kom-prom'is. 

concise,  kon-sis,  not  kon-siz'. 

condemning,  kon-dem'ning,  not  kon-dem'ing. 

construe,  kon'stroo,  not  kon-stroo'. 

contumacy,  kon'tu-macy,  not  kon-tu'-macy, 

conversant,  kon'ver-sant,  not  kon-ver'sant. 

coquetry,  ko-ket'rl,  not  ko'ket-ri. 

courier,  koo'ri-er,  not  kur'rl-er. 

covetous,  kuv'et-us,  not  kuv'e-chus. 

credence,  kre'dence,  not  krgd'ence. 

creek,  krek,  not  krik. 

culinary,  ku'li-na-ri,  not  kul'i-na-rl. 

cupola,  ku'po-la,  not  ku'pa-lo. 

curator,  ku-ra'tor,  not  ku'ra-tor. 

cursed  (adjective),  kur'sed,  not  kurst. 

D. 

daguerreotype,  da-geVo-tip,  not  da-ger'e-o-tlp. 

damning,  dam'ning,  not  dam'ing. 

Danish,  Dan'ish,  not  Dan'ish. 

depot,  de-po  or  da-po,  not  da'po.     (Commonly,  de'po.) 

diaeresis,  di-eVe-sis,  not  di-e-re'sis. 

ale,  at,  are,  all,  e"ve,  end,  h6r,  Ice,  ink,  own,  on,  ooze, 


PRONUNCIATION.  595 

dimension,  dl-men'shun,  not  dl-men'shun. 

diplomacy,  dl-plo'ma-si,  not  dip'lo-ma-sl. 

direct,  di-rekt',  not  di-rekt'. 

discourteous,  dis-kurt'e-us,  not  dis-kort'e-us. 

divan,  d!-van',  not  dl'van. 

diverge,  dl-verj',  not  di-verj'. 

dolorous,  d5l'o-rus,  not  do'lo-rus. 

Doric,  dQr-ik,  not  do'rik. 

drown,  drown,  not  drownd. 

drowned,  drownd,  not  drown'ded. 

ductile,  duk'til,  not  duk'til. 

E. 

egg,  5g,  not  ag. 

elm,  elm,  not  el'um. 

encore,  6ng-kor',  not  Qng'kOr. 

epicurean,  ep-i-ku-re'an,  not  ep-I-ku're-an. 

epizootic,  ep-i-zo-ot'ik,  not  ep-I-zoo'tik. 

equation,  e-kwa'shun,  not  e-kwa'zhun. 

erasure,  e-ra'zhur,  not  e-ra'shur. 

exact,  egz-akt',  not  eks-akt'. 

exquisite,  eks'kwi-zit,  not  eks-kwiz'it. 

F. 

falchion,  fawl'chun  or  fawl'shun,  not  fal'chun. 

falcon,  faw'kn,  not  fal'kn. 

far,  far,  not  fur. 

faucet,  faw'set,  not  fas'et. 

feme-sole,  fem-sol',  not  fern-sol'. 

figure,  fig'yur,  not  fig'ur. 

finale,  fe-na'le,  not  fi'nal. 

finance,  ft-nance',  not  fl'nance. 

financier,  fin-an-ser',  not  fi-nan-seV. 

flaccid,  flak'sid,  not  flas'id. 

for,  for,  not  fur. 

florist,  flo  rist,  not  flor  ist. 

forbade,  for-bad',  not  for-bad'. 

forge,  forj,  not  fawrj. 

hd&d,  use,  up,  ow-1,  aw-1,  ffi-e,  th-ink,  go,  ch-at. 


596   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

forgery,  forj'er-i,  not  for'jer-i. 

forget,  for-get',  not  for-git'. 

formidable,  for'mf-da-ble,  not  lor-mld'a-ble. 

fortress,  for  tres,  not  fort  res. 

fragile,  fraj'il,  not  fraj'i' 

G. 

gaseous,  gaz'e-us,  not  gas'e-us. 

gasometer,  gaz-om'e-ter,  not  gas-om'e-ter. 

get,  get,  not  git. 

ghoul,  gool,  not  gowl. 

giaour,  jowr,  not  joor. 

gladiator,  glad'I-a-tur,  not  gla'dl-a-tur. 

God,  God,  not  gawd. 

gondola,  g5n'do-la,  not  gon-do'la. 

Gotham,  go'tham,  not  goth'am. 

government,  guv'ern-ment,  not  guv'er-munt. 

gratis,  gra'tis. 

guardian,  gard'i-an,  not  gar-den'. 

gubernatorial,  gu-ber-na-to'rl-al,  not  gflb-er-na-to'rl-al. 

gums,  gumz,  not  goomz. 

gum-arabic,  gum-ar'a-blk,  not  gum-a-ra'blk. 

H, 

half,  haf,  not  haf. 

harem,  ha'rem,  not  haVem. 

hearth,  harth,  not  herth. 

Herculean,  her-ku'le-an,  not  her-ku-lS'an. 

heroine,  her'o-In,  not  her'o-ln. 

homage,  hom'aj,  not  om'aj. 

hostage,  hbs'taj,  not  host'aj. 

hostler,  hQs'ler,  not  haws'ler. 

hundred,  hun'dred,  not  hun'durd. 

hurrah,  hoor-ra',  not  hur-raw'. 

hydropathy,  hi-drop'a-thi,  not  hi'dro-paht-l. 

hymeneal,  hi-me-ne'al,  not  hi-me'ne-al. 

hypocrisy,  hl-pok'ri-sl,  not  hl-pok'rl-sl. 

ale,  at,  are,  all,  eve,  end,  her,  Ice,  Ink,  own,  5n,  ooze, 


PRONUNCIATION.  597 

I. 

idyl,  I'dyl,  not  Id'il. 

impious,  Im'pi-us,  not  im-pl'us. 

impotent,  im'po-tent,  not  im-po'tent. 

inamorata,  in-am-o-ra'ta,  not  in-am-o-ra'ta. 

indisputable,  in-dis'pu-ta-bl,  not  in-dis-put'a-bl. 

industry,  in'dus-trl,  not  in-dus'trl 

international,  in-ter-nash'un-al,  not  in-ter-na'shun-al 

intrigue,  in-treg',  not  in'treg 

irate,  I-rat',  not  I' rat. 

irreparable,  Ir-rep'a-ra-bl,  not  Ir-re-par'a-bL 

Italian,  I-tal'yan,  not  I-tal'yan. 

italic,  I-tal'ik,  not  i-tal  ik. 

J. 

January,  jan'u-a-rf,  not  jen'u-a-rf. 
jaunt,  jant,  not  jawnt. 
jugular,  ju  gu-lar,  not  jug  u-lar. 
juvenile,  ju've-nll,  not  ju've-nll. 


lamentable,  lam'en-ta-bl,  not  la-ment'a-bL 
lang-syne,  lang-sln',  not  lang-zln'. 
larynx,  lar'inks,  not  la' rinks, 
latent,  la'tent,  not  lat'ent. 
learned,  lern'ed,  not  lernd'. 
legendary,  Igj'an-da-ri,  not  le'jen-da-rt, 
leisure,  le'zhur,  not  lezh'ur. 
lenient,  le'ni-ent,  not  len'I-ent. 
lethargic,  le-thar'jik,  not  leth'ar-jik. 
lithography,  lith-og'ra-fl,  not  lith'o-graf-l 
lyceum,  li-se'um,  not  li'se-um. 

M. 

mamma,  mam-ma',  not  mSm'ma. 

mangy,  man'jl,  not  mSn'ji. 

maniacal,  ma-ni'ak-al,  not  ma'nl-ak-al. 

hot)d,  use,  tip,  ow-1,  aw-1,  /%-e,  t±i-ink,  go,  ch-at. 


59^   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

marital,  mart-tal,  not  maVi-tal. 
maritime,  mar'1-tlm,  not  mar'I-tim. 
masculine,  mas'ku-lln,  not  mas'ku-lln. 
massacred,  mas'sa-kerd,  not  mas'sa-kred. 
mausoleum,  maw-so-le'um,  not  maw-so'le-ura. 
mercantile,  mer'kan-tfl,  not  mer'kan-tll. 
mineralogy,  min-er-al'o-ji,  not  min-er-oro-jl. 
misanthrope,  mis'an-throp,  not  mis-an'throp. 
mischievous,  mis'chiv-us,  not  mis-chev'us. 
mistletoe,  miz'l-to,  not  mis'l-to 
morale,  mo-ral',  not  mo-ral'. 
moslem,  moz'lem,  not  mos'lem 
municipal,  mu-nis'i-pl,  not  mu'nl-sip-al. 
museum,  mu-ze'um,  not  mu'ze-um. 

N. 

naive,  na'ev. 
naivete,  na'ev-ta. 
nape,  nap,  not  nap. 
nasal,  na'zal,  not  na'sal. 
nauseous,  naw'shus,  not  naw'se-us. 
neuralgia,  nu-ral'ji-a,  not  nu-ral'i-ji 
nuncio,  nun'shi-o. 

o. 

obesity,  o-bSs'I-tl,  not  o-be'sl-tl. 

obligatory,  ob'U-ga-tory,  not  ob-llg'a-to-ry. 

obsequies,  ob'se-kwiz,  not  ob-se'kwiz. 

off,  6f,  not  awf. 

orang-outang,  o-rang/oo-tang',  not  o'rang-ow'tang. 

orion,  o-rl'un,  not  o'ri-un. 

orison,  or'i-zun,  not  or'l-sun. 

oxide,  oks'id. 

P. 

Palestine,  pal'es-tin,  not  pal'es-tln. 
papa,  pa-pa',  not  pa'pa. 
Parisian,  pa-riz'j^an. 

ale,  at.  are,  all,  eve,  6nd,  hgr,  Ice,  Ink,  own.  On,  doze, 


PRONUNCIATION.  599 

pariah,  pa'ri-ah. 

pedal  (adjective),  pe'dal,  not  ped'al. 

pedal  (noun),  ped'al,  not  pe'dal. 

pedestal,  ped'es-tal,  not  pe-des'tal. 

penitentiary,  pen-e-ten'sha-ri,  not  pen-e-ten'shl-a-ri. 

Persian,  per'shan,  not  per'zhan. 

phonics,  fon'iks,  not  fo'niks. 

phosphorus,  fos'fo-rus,  not  fos-fo'rus. 

photographer,  fo-tog'ra-fer,  not  fo'to-graf-er. 

phrenologic,  fren-o-loj'ik,  not  fre-no-loj'ik. 

pianist,  pi-a'nist. 

piano-forte,  pl-a'no-for'ta,  not  pl-an'o-f5rt. 

pith,  pith,  not  peth. 

placard  (noun  and  verb),  pla-kard',  not  plak'ard. 

plateau,  pla-to',  not  plat-6'. 

plebeian,  ple-be'yan,  not  ple'be-an. 

prairie,  pra'ri,  not  pa-ra'n. 

precedence,  pre-sed'ence,  not  pres'e-dence. 

preface,  pref  ace,  not  pre  face. 

preposterous,  pre-pos'ter-us,  not  pre-pos'trus. 

privacy,  pri'va-si,  not  prlv'a-si. 

profuse,  pro-fas',  not  pro-fuz'. 

project  (noun),  proj'ekt,  not  pro'jekt. 

prosaic,  pro-za'ik,  not  pro-sa'ik. 

protege,  pro-ta-zha',  not  prot'a-zha. 

pyramidal,  pi-ram'i-dal,  not  pir'a-mld-al. 

Pythoness,  pith'o-nes,  not  pi'tho-nes. 

Q. 

quadrille,  kwa-dril'  or  ka-dril',  not  kwod-dril'. 
quoit,  kwoit,  not  kwat. 

K. 

radish,  rad'ish,  not  red'ish. 
raspberry,  raz'ber-ri,  not  rawz'ber-ri. 
rational,  rash'un-al,  not  ra'shun-al. 
recess,  re-ses',  not  re'ses. 
recognize,  rek'og-nlz,  not  re-kog'niz. 

hdod,  use,  up,  ovv-1,  aw-1,  /x5-e,  di-ink,  go,  ch-at. 


60O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

reconnoitre,  rek-on-noi'ter,  not  re-kon-noi'ter. 

recourse,  re-kors',  not  re'kors. 

regular,  reg'u-ler,  not  reg'ler. 

reparable,  rep'a-ra-bl,  not  re-par'a-bL 

research,  re-serch',  not  re'serch. 

retail  (noun),  re'tal. 

retail  (verb),  re-tal'. 

retributive,  re-trib'u-tlve,  not  ret'rl-bu-tlv. 

reveille,  re  val'ya. 

ribald,  rib'ald,  not  ri'bald  nor  rib'awld. 

rid,  rid,  not  red. 

rinse,  rinse,  not  rgnse. 

root,  root,  not  rdtbt. 

roil,  roil,  not  ril. 

romance,  ro-mance',  not  ro'mance. 

ruffian,  ruf  yan,  not  ruf'in. 

s. 

sacrament,  sak'ra-ment,  not  sa'kra-ment. 

sacrifice,  sak'ri-fiz,  not  sa'krl-flz. 

sacrilegious,  sak-rl-le'jus,  not  sak-rl-lij'us, 

sagacious,  sa-ga'shus,  not  sa-gash'us. 

salary,  sal'a-ri,  not  sal'ri. 

salve,  sav,  not  sav. 

Samaritan,  sa-mar'I-tan,  not  sa-ma'rl-tan. 

scarce,  skarce,  not  skurce. 

scared,  skard,  not  skart. 

secretary,  sek're-ta-rl,  not  sek'fi-ta-rt. 

siren,  si'ren,  not  slr'en 

slept,  slSpt,  not  slgp. 

soft,  s5ft,  not  sawft. 

soiree,  swa-ra'. 

souse,  sows,  not  sowz. 

stolid,  stol'id,  not  sto'lid. 

stupendous,  stu-pen'dus,  not  stu-pen'du-u*. 

suavity,  swav'i-ti,  not  su-av'i-ti. 

subpoena,  sub-pe'na,  not  sup-pe'na. 

supple,  sup'l,  not  soo'pl. 

surveillance,  sur-val'yance. 

ule,  it,  iire,  all,  eve,  6nd,  h6r,  Ice,  Ink,  Own,  8n,  (5oze, 


PRONUNCIATION.  6OI 

T. 


tapestry,  tap'es-trl,  not  taps'trl. 

Tartarean,  tar-ta're-an,  not  tar-ta-re'an. 

telegraphy,  te-leg'ra-fl. 

temperament,  tem'per-a-ment,  not  tem'per-munt. 

tenacious,  te-na'shus,  not  te-nash'us. 

tenet,  ten'et,  not  te'net. 

tiara,  ti-a'ra,  not  ti-a'ra. 

ticklish,  tik'lish,  not  tik'1-ish. 

tiny,  tl'nl,  not  tin  I'  nor  te'ni. 

tryst,  trist,  not  trlst. 

turbine,  tur'bln,  not  tur'bln. 


Uranus,  u'ra-nus,  not  u-ra'nus. 
usage,  uz'-aj,  not  us'-aj. 


V. 


vehement,  ve'he-ment,  not  ve-he'ment. 
veterinary,  vet'er-e-na-rl,  not  vet'rl-na-ri. 
vicar,  vik'ar,  not  vi'kar. 
viscount,  vi'kownt,  not  vls'kownt. 
vitriol,  vit'n-ul,  not  vit'rul. 
visor,  viz'ur,  not  vi'zur. 
volatile,  vol'a-tll,  not  vol'a-tll. 

w. 

wan,  wQn,  not  wSn. 

was,  w6z,  not  wuz. 

water,  waw'ter,  not  wot'er. 

wife's  (possessive  case),  wlfs,  not  wlvz. 

wiseacre,  wlz'a-ker,  not  wlz-a'ker. 

won't,  wont,  not  wunt. 

wrath,  rath,  not  rath. 

wrestle,  res'l,  not  ras'l. 

hot>d,  use,  up,  ow-1,  aw-1,  /%-e,  th-ink,  'go,  ch-at. 


6O2   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Y. 

yacht,  y6t,  not  ySt. 
yolk,  yok,  or  yolk, 
youths,  yooths,  not  yGbthz. 
yclept,  I-klgpt'. 

z. 

zealot,  zgl'ut,  not  zel'ut. 
zenith,  ze'nith,  not  zen'ith. 
zoology,  zo-ol'o-jl,  not  zoo-ol'o-jl. 
zoological,  zo-o-loj'I-kal,  not  zoo-o-loj'I-kal. 
zouave,  z66-av'  or  zwav,  not  zoo-av'. 

DIFFICULT  PROPER  NAMES. 

Agassiz  —  ag'-a-see. 

Alsace  —  al-saV. 

Argyle  —  ar-g!l'. 

Avon  — a'  v5n. 

Baton  Rouge  —  bat'-un  roSzh'. 

Blucher  —  bloo'-ker. 

Buddha—  bood'-da. 

Carnegie  —  kar-ngg'-g. 

Crimea  —  kri-me'-a. 

Dumas  —  dii-ma'. 

Geikie  —  ge'-ke. 

Guizot  — ge'-zo. 

Hawaii  —  ha-wi'-e. 

I  ago  —  e-a'-go. 

Jean  Valjean  —  zhan  val-zhan. 

Pail-Mall  —  pel-meT. 

Psyche  —  si'-ke. 

Schurz  —  shot>rts. 

Soult  —  soolt. 

Tolstoi  —  tol-stoi. 

Wellesley— w6lz'-H. 

Youghiogheny  —  y6-h6-ga'-nl. 

Zeus  —  zus. 

ale,  at,  are,  all,  eve,  6nd,  hSr,  Ice,  Ink,  own,  5n,  6T>ze, 
hot)d,  use,  tip,  ow-1,  aw-1,  ffi-e,  th-ink,  go,  ch-at. 


ESSENTIALS  OF  LETTER  WRITING.  603 

LETTER  WRITING. 

A  letter  may  be  subdivided  as  follows :  The  Head- 
ing ;  the  Introduction;  the  Body;  the  Conclusion, 
and  the  Superscription. 

Heading. 

The  heading  comprises  the  name  of  the  place  at 
which  the  letter  is  written  and  the  date. 

If  writing  from  a  place  having  a  "free  delivery," 
give  name  of  street  and  number  of  door  ;  if  at  a  hotel 
or  some  well-known  institution,  its  name  may  take 
the  place  of  the  street  and  door-number.  If  writing 
from  a  small  place  give  the  county  and  state. 

Date. 

The  date  comprises  the  month,  the  day  of  the 
month,  and  the  year. 

Begin  the  heading  about  an  inch  and  one-half  from 
the  top  of  the  page  and  near  the  middle  of  the  sheet. 
If  the  heading  is  very  short,  it  may  occupy  but  one 
line.  When  the  heading  consists  of  more  than  one 
line,  each  line  should  begin  a  little  to  the  right  of 
the  preceding  one.  Place  the  date  on  a  line  by  itself 
when  the  heading  comprises  two  or  more  lines. 
Begin  each  important  word  with  a  capital  letter,  set 
off  each  item  by  a  comma,  and  close  the  whole  head- 
ing with  a  period.  The  street  number,  the  day  of 
the  month,  and  the  year  are  written  in  figures. 
Business  men  sometimes  write  all  the  date  in  figures, 


604   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

but  it  is  allowable  only  in  the  rush  of  business  cor- 
respondence. 

The  following  examples   will    illustrate  the  fore- 
going rules : 

Utica,  JV.  K,  6-23-94. 


Scipiovillet 

Cayuga  Co.,  N.  K, 

May  7,  1894. 

742  West  Fourth  St. , 

Williamsport,  Pa., 

February  27,  1894. 

Executive  Chamber, 

Albany,  N.  K, 

May  7,  1894. 

Hotel  Iroquois, 

Bu/alo,  N.  Y., 

June  22,  1894. 

Introduction. 

The  introduction  comprises  the  Name,  Title, 
Residence  or  place  of  business  of  the  addressee,  and 
the  Salutation. 

Titles  of  respect  or  professional  titles  should  always 
be  used  unless  addressing  one  of  the  sect  of  "  Friends." 
Titles  of  respect  and  military  titles  are  usually  placed 
before  the  name ;  professional  titles  are  sometimes 
placed  before  and  sometimes  after  the  name. 


ESSENTIALS   OF    LETTER    WRITING.  605 

Do  not  give  a  person  two  titles  of  the  same  rank ; 
as  Mr.  John  White,  Esq.,  or,  Mr.  Dr.  Smkh. 

Observe  the  following  rules :  Prefix  Mr.  to  a  man's 
name ;  Messrs,  to  the  names  of  two  or  more  gentle- 
men; Miss  to  that  of  an  unmarried  lady;  Mrs.  to 
that  of  a  married  lady  ;  Dr.  to  that  of  a  physician  ; 
Rev.  to  that  of  a  clergyman,  or  Rev.  Mr.  if  his  chris- 
tian  name  is  unknown ;  Rev.  Dr.  to  that  of  a  Doctor 
of  Divinity  or ;  as  Rev.  John  Newman,  D.  D.;  Hon. 
to  that  of  a  member  of  Congress,  a  member  of  the 
State  Legislature,  a  member  of  the  Cabinet,  the  head 
of  an  executive  department  of  the  government,  a 
minister  abroad,  a  mayor,  a  judge,  or  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent  of  the  U.  S. 

Prefix,  His  Excellency,  to  the  name  of  the  Presi- 
dent, to  that  of  a  governor,  and  to  that  of  an  em- 
bassador. 

Prefix  Prof,  to  the  name  of  a  teacher  of  some 
especial  science  or  branch  of  learning.  Do  not  use 
this  title  indiscriminately. 

Give  the  title  of  her  husband  to  a  married  lady. 
If  two  titles  are  added  to  a  name,  give  them  in  the 
order  in  which  they  were  conferred  ;  as  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., 
D.  D.,  LL.  D.  Do  not  use  many  titles  ;  the  lower  is 
implied  in  the  higher. 

Salutations  vary  with  the  rank  of  the  person  ad- 
dressed or  the  writer's  intimacy  with  him.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  usual  ones  :  For  strangers  —  Sir,  Rev. 
Sir,  General,  Madam,  etc. ;  for  acquaintances  —  Dear 
Sir,  Dear  Madam,  etc. ;  for  friends  —  My  dear  Sir, 


606   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

My  dear  Madam,  My  dear  Whitney,  etc. ;  for  near 
relatives  and  dear  friends,  the  more  cordial  or  affec- 
tionate ones  may  be  used.  The  salutation  is  gener- 
ally omitted  in  business  letters  to  an  unmarried  lady, 
though  she  may  be  addressed  ;  as  Dear  Miss  White, 
but  the  form  ''Dear  Miss"  should  not  be  used  alone. 

The  Address. —  Begin  on  the  line  below  the  head- 
ing, or  on  the  next  line  but  one,  and  on  the  left-hand 
side  of  the  sheet.  In  a  very  formal  letter,  or  to  an 
intimate  friend,  the  address  may  be  placed  at  the  bot- 
tom. Begin  each  line  of  the  address  a  little  to  the 
right  of  the  preceding  one.  Begin  the  salutation  a 
little  to  the  right  of  the  marginal  line  when  the  ad- 
dress occupies  three  lines  ;  a  little  to  the  right  of  the 
beginning  of  the  second  line  when  the  address  occu- 
pies two  lines ;  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  marginal 
line  when  the  address  consists  of  one  line  ;  on  the 
marginal  line  when  the  address  is  written  below. 
Begin  each  important  word  of  the  salutation  with  a 
capital  letter  and  set  off  the  whole  by  a  comma  and 
dash,  or  by  the  colon. 

Begin  all  important  words  in  the  address  with  cap- 
ital  letters ;  set  off  all  the  items  by  a  comma  ;  it  being 
an  abbreviated  sentence,  close  the  whole  with  a  period. 

Addresses  and  salutations  : 

The  Rt.  Rev.  A.  Cleveland  Cox,  D.  D., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Sir  : 


ESSENTIALS    OF    LETTER    WRITING.  607 

Miss  Helen  A.  Browne, 

642  Brighton  Ave., 

Rochester,  N.  K 
We  are,  etc. 

Helen  A.  Browne, 

642  Brighton  Ave., 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Dear  Miss  Browne  :    We  are,  etc. 

J.  M'.  Stilwell,  M.  D., 

123  Cortlandt  St., 

Chicago,  III. 
Dear  Sir  : 


Body. 

Begin  the  body  of  the  letter  on  the  same  line  when 
the  address  consists  of  three  lines  or  more ;  otherwise 
on  the  line  below. 

Style. 

Business  letters  should  be  brief  and  perspicuous. 
Let  each  sentence  be  short  and  to  the  point. 
Avoid  all  flourishes.  Be  sure  to  give  the  town, 
county,  state,  and  date  of  writing.  In  ordering 
goods,  state  carefully  just  what  you  want  and 
how  and  where  you  wish  them  sent.  Do  not  mix 
other  matters  in  an  order;  let  it  be  on  a  sheet  alone. 
In  letters  of  business  write  on  but  one  side  of  the 
sheet.  Send  money  by  express,  money  order,  draft, 


608   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

or  registered  letter,  and  always  state  the  amount. 
Answer  a  letter  promptly,  acknowledge  its  receipt, 
mention  its  date,  and  take  up  all  points  therein  re- 
quiring your  notice.  Enclose  stamp  when  the  reply 
benefits  you  more  than  the  person  addressed. 

Letters  of  friendship  should  be  easy,  natural,  and 
familiar. 

Letters  of  introduction  or  of  recommendation 
should  never  be  sealed. 

Observe  the  following :  Use  simple  words ;  use 
words  that  express  your  meaning  clearly  and  prop 
erly ;  be  careful  in  the  use  of  pronouns  and  see  that 
they  have  their  appropriate  case  form  ;  avoid  expres- 
sions that  are  not  sanctioned  by  good  usage ;  and 
use  no  more  words  than  are  required  to  express  your 
meaning  clearly. 

In  the  arrangement,  place  the  subject  before  the 
object  when  there  would  be  any  doubt  which  was  the 
subject  and  which  the  object  if  the  position  of  the 
words  was  reversed.  Place  all  word,  phrase  or  clause 
modifiers  where  their  position  will  leave  no  doubt  as 
to  what  they  modify. 

Remember  "  a  sentence  is  hot  a  bag  to  be  stuffed 
with  miscellaneous  matter,  its  value  increasing  with 
the  quantity  crowded  into  it."  See  "Wrong  use  of 
words"  for  common  mistakes. 

Conclusion. 

The  conclusion  consists  of  the  complimentary 
close  and  the  signature.  The  forms  of  complimentary 


ESSENTIALS   OF    LETTER    WRITING.  609 

close  vary  with  the  kind  of  correspondence  and  the 
relations  of  the  writer  and  the  one  addressed.  The 
ones  most  used  in  friendship  are,  Sincerely  yours, 
Truly  your  friend;  Cordially  jours,  and  Yours 
affectionately.  Ordinary  correspondence  employs  the 
following  :  Yours,  Yours  truly,  Truly  yours,  Yours 
respectfully,  Very  respectfully  yours,  etc. 

A  lady  in  writing  to  strangers  should  give  her  title 
—Miss  or  Mrs. —  as  (Miss)  Mary  A.  Knight. 

Superscription. 

Begin  the  name  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  centre 
of  the  envelope ;  let  each  line  slope  to  the  right, 
as  in  the  headings,  placing  the  post-office  on  the 
second  line,  the  county  on  the  third,  and  the  State 
on  the  fourth  near  the  lower  right-hand  corner 
of  the  envelope.  The  county  may  also  be  written 
on  the  same  line  as  the  State  but  in  the  left-hand 
corner. 

In  a  city  address,  the  county  is  omitted  and  the 
door  number  and  street  occupy  the  second  line. 
Titles  following  the  name  should  be  separated  from 
it  and  from  each  other  by  the  comma. 

Each  line  should  end  with  a  comma,  except  the  last 
one  which  should  be  closed  with  a  period. 

Mr.  S.   G.  Pollard, 

Belmont, 

Allegany  Co., 

N.  K 
39 


6lO   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Mr.  S.  G.  Pollard, 

Belmont, 
All*.  Co.  N.  Y. 


Mr.   W.  H.  Percey,Jr., 

876  Linwood  Ave., 

Rochester,  N.   Y. 

Mr.   Thomas  H.    Wentworth, 

I2j  Euciid  Ave., 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 


Thomas  Faulkner,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  M.  D., 

c/o  London,  England. 

Royal  Medical  Council. 

IV.  H.  Harding,  Esq., 

1134  Prospect  Ave., 

Politeness  of  Chicago, 

Mr.  H.  A.  May.  III. 

Mrs.  Dr.  Henry  A.  Brown, 

Presented. 

The  Matthews-Northrup  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.   K 
Introducing, 

Mr.  H.  A.  Swift. 


ESSENTIALS   OF    LETTER    WRITING.  6ll 

Form  of  address  for  both  husband  and  wife  where 
the  husband  has  title  :  Dr.  and  Mrs.  C.  H.  Smith  ; 
where  both  have  titles,  Drs.  John  A.  and  Sarah  J. 
Brown  ;  where  the  wife  alone  has  title,  Mr.  C.  H.  and 
Dr.  Helen  A.  Cooke  ;  wife  alone  with  title,  Mrs.  Dr. 
Helen  A.  Smith. 

Unmarried  lady  with  title,  Miss  Dr.  Helen  A. 
Knight;  Miss  Helen  A.  Knight,  M.  D.;  Rev.  Miss 
Helen  A.  Knight ;  Rev.  Helen  A.  Knight. 

Put  your  address  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of 
the  envelope,  and  if  not  delivered,  the  letter  will  be 
returned  to  you  at  the  expiration  of  thirty  days  with- 
out going  to  the  dead  letter  office. 

Letters  of  introduction  or  recommendation  should 
not  be  sealed,  and  should  be  given  with  due  caution, 
as  the  writer,  in  a  measure,  vouches  for  the  bearer. 

Remitting  money. 

The  Eagle  Publishing  Co., 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Gentlemen —  Enclosed  find  draft  on  New  York  bank,  for 
$187.23,  with  which  you  will  please  credit  my  account. 

Very  respectfully, 

Thomas  Payne. 

Acknowledging  remittance. 

Mr.  Thomas  Payne ', 

Cayuga,  N.   Y. 
Dear  Sir  : 

Your  favor  of  the  zoth  inst.  containing  draft  for  One 
Hundred  Eighty-seven  and  23Jroo  dollars  ($187.23)  is  duly 
received.  Please  accept  our  thanks  for  your  promptness. 

Respectfully  yours, 

The  Eagle  Publishing  Co. 


6l2       A    PRACTICAL    BOOK    FOR    PRACTICAL    PEOPLE. 
Order  for  goods. 

Richfield  Springs,  N.  Y.y  June  4,  1894. 
C,  H.  Ditson  <5r»  Co., 

867  JB  roadway, 

New  York. 

Messrs. —  Enclosed  find  $2.00   for  which  please  send  me  by 
American  Ex.  two  copies  of  ''''Piano  Classics." 

Respectfully  yours, 

(Miss)  Florence  M.  Woods. 


Mr.  James  L.  Morgan, 

Secretary  of  School  Board. 


Application  for  a  position. 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  May  18,  1894. 


Sir :  —  J  am  informed  that  there  is  a  vacancy  in  the 

of  your  school,  and  I  beg  leave  to  offer  myself  as  a  candidate  for 
the  position. 

I  was  graduated  at in and 

have  taught  steadily  since  then.  I  hand  you,  herewith,  testimonials 
from  A.  S.  Draper,  Supt.  of  Schools  of  this  city,  and  I  am  per- 
mitted to  refer  you  to the  president  of  the  above 

named  institution. 

Should  you  desire  a  personal  interview,  I  shall  be  glad  to  present 
myself  at  such  time  and  place  as  will  best  suit  you. 

Very  respectfully, 

(Miss}  Mary  If.  Ives. 

Request  for  testimonial. 

Williamsport,  Pa.,  March  24,  1894. 
Secretary  of  Board  of  Education, 


Dear   Sir:  —  As   I  am    about  to   make   an   application  for   a 
position  in  a  school  nearer  home,  I  venture  to  ask  if  you  will J>c 


ESSENTIALS   OF    LETTER    WRITING.  613 

so  kind  as  to  give  me  a  line  stating  with  what  success  I  met  while 
discharging  my  duties  as  teacher  in  your  school. 

If  the  reply  is  as  favorable  as  I  hope  it  will  be,  I  shall  find  it 
of  great  value  to  me. 

Trusting  that  you  will  kindly  favor  me  with  an  early  reply,  I 
beg  to  remain,  Very  respectfully  yours, 

Ellen  H.  Bronson. 

Recommendation. 

To  whom  it  may  concern  : 

I  have  known  the  bearer,  Mr.  Henry  A.  Mills,  for  a  long  time 
and  it  gives  me  pleasure  to  speak  of  the  high  esteem  in  which  he  is 
held  in  this  community. 

His  habits  are  of  the  best,  his  intelligence  is  of  a  high  order,  and 
we  have  ei>er  found  him  honest  and  conscientious  in  the  performance 
of  his  duty. 

I  take  pleasure  in  recommending  him  to  any  one  who  requires  the 
services  of  an  active,  energetic,  and  trustworthy  young  man. 

John  D.  Stone. 


Request  for  more  time  in  settling  an  account. 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  May  23,  1894. 
Wheeler  &  Grossman, 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Gentlemen  :  —  /  am  very  sorry  that  circumstances  I  could  not 
for  see  have  rendered  it  impossible  for  me  to  settle  my  account  with 
you  before  the  last  of  next  month. 

Regretting  that  I  am  forced  to  disappoint  you  in  the  matter,  I  am, 

Most  respectfully  yours, 

James  P.  Carter. 


Jtequest  for  catalogue. 

Wellsville,  N.  Y.,  June  25,  1894, 
fames  M.  Milne,  Ph.  D., 

Oneonta,  N.   Y. 
Sir  :  —  Will  you  please  send  me  a  copy  of  your  latest  catalogue  ? 


614   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

/  expect  to  attend  school  the  coming  year  and  your  institution  has 
been  highly  recommended  to  me. 

Vet    respectfully  yours, 

T.  W.  Olney. 


Request  for  settlement. 

Rochester,  N.  Y.,  March  17,  1894. 
H.  W.  Powers,  Esq., 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Dear  Sir  :  —  We  hand  you,  herewith,  statement  of  your  account 
and  regret  that  unexpected  demands  compel  us  to  ask  you  for  an 
early  settlement. 

Trusting  you  will  appreciate  our  position  and  thanking  you  for 
the  attention  you  have  always  given  us,  we  are, 

Yours  respectfully, 

Weed  6°  Browne. 

Z,etter  of  introduction. 

Carlisle,  Ky.,  May  23,  1894. 
Mr.  James  H.  Wade, 

Elmira,  N.  Y. 

Dear  Sir  :  —  This  will  introduce  to  you  Mr.  Charles  A.  Brown, 
of  this  place,  who  is  a  warm  friend  of  mine. 

He  expects  to  remain  in  your  city  for  a  short"  time  and  any  favors 
you  may  show  him  will  render  me  your  debtor. 

Cordially  yours, 

M.  J.  White. 


Acknowledging  receipt  of  goods. 

Messrs.  Brown  6°  Baker, 

23  Walnut  Street^ 

Syracuse,  N.   Y. 

Gentlemen:  —  Your  favor  of  the  23^,  enclosing  B.  of  L.  and 
invoice,  was  duly  received. 


ESSENTIALS    OF    LETTER    WRITING.  615 

The  goods  were  all  that  could  be  desired,  and  we  thank  you  for 
your  promptness  in  filling  your  order. 

Enclosed  find  in  payment  Express  Money  Order  for  Thirty-one 
and  25-100  dollars  ($31.25). 

Please  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  the  same  and  oblige, 

Yours  respectfully, 
Frank  J.  Harvey. 

Urging  settlement. 

Hornellsville,  January  13,  1894. 
Mr.  Henry  F.  Burdick, 

Olean,N.  Y. 

Dear  Sir :  —  We  hand  you  herewith  statement  of  your  account 
for  the  last  month,  which  we  trust  you  will  find  correct. 

May  we  ask  that  you  will  give  the  matter  your  earliest  attention 
and  oblige  us  by  sending  your  check  for  the  amount. 

Most  respectfully  yours, 

Brown  6^  Babcock. 

Batavia,  N.  K,  May  5,  1894. 
Mr.  James  C.  Harter, 

Brockport,  N.  Y. 

Dear  Sir :  —  Enclosed  find  statement  of  your  account,  the  amount 
of  which  is  so  trifling  that  it  has  probably  escaped  your  notice. 
Thanking  you  in  advance  for  the  prompt  attention  which  we  are 

:ure  you  will  shew  it,  we  are, 

Very  truly  yours, 

Williams  6°  Morgan. 

Subscribing  to  a  paper. 

Rochester,  N.  K,  May  27,  1894. 
Perry,  Mason  <5r  Co., 

The  Youth's  Companion, 

Boston,  Mass.: 
Gentlemen:  — Enclosed  find  Money    Order  of  $1.75    for  one 

tears  subscription  to  your  paper. 

Archie  K.  Baker. 


6l6       A    PRACTICAL    BOOK    FOR    PRACTICAL    PEOPLE. 
English  form  of  letter. 

Lincoln's  Inn  Pi  elds, 

London,   W.  C., 
i6th  day  of  November,  1893. 

Sir :  —  /  regret  that  I  am  unable  to  give  you  any  information 
concerning  Thomas  Faulkner,  M.  D. 

There  is  not  a  Royal  Medical  Council  in  this  country;  there  is  the 
General  Medical  Council,  but  Dr.  Faulkner  was  never  president 
of  it.  Respectfully, 

Sibert  Cowell, 
V.  M.  Allen,  Esq.  Assistant  Secretary, 


Iietter  of  condolence. 

Williamsport,  Pa.,  March  26,  1894. 

Dear  Friend:  —  /  learn  with  deep  sorrow  of  your  recent 
bereavement. 

Your  loss  is,  indeed,  heavy,  and  his  many  friends  realize  how 
widely  he  will  be  missed  outside  your  own  home  circle. 

True,  earnest,  gifted,  and  generous,  "  notte  knew  him  but  to  lore 
him;  none  named  him  but  to  praise."  The  heavy  shadow  of  a  great 
sorrow  is  upon  you  now,  but  the  light  will  yet  break  thro'  and  He 
who  " doeth  all  things  well"  has  promised  us  a  happy  reunion  in 
the  great  beyond. 

I  know  how  little  consolation  mere  words  convey  to  an  aching 
heart^  but  I  offer  you  my  tenderest  sympathy. 

Very  sincerely  yours, 
Mrs.  H.  B,  Newcomb.  

RESOLUTIONS. 

Resolutions  of  clubs,  societies,  etc.,  on  the  death 
of  members,  should  be  simple,  concise,  and  consist- 
ent with  the  character  of  the  deceased.  Carefully 
abstain  from  obvious  exaggeration  and  avoid  either 
extreme  in  length. 


ESSENTIALS    OF    LETTER    WRITING.  6l/ 

Begin  the  preamble  with  WHEREAS,  and  set  forth 
the  occasion  for  the  following  resolutions.  Begin 
each  resolution  with  Resolved,  or  Be  it  resolved,  and 
affix  the  names  of  the  committee  to  the  whole. 

WHEREAS,  The,  etc. 

Resolved,  That,  etc. 

THE  WRONG  USE  OF  WORDS. 

Use  the  simplest  words  that  will  correctly  convey 
the  sense  intended.  Use  words  concerning  whose 
meaning  there  can  be  no  doubt,  for  serious  trouble 
often  arises  when  two  persons  give  to  one  word  dif- 
ferent meanings. 

A,  is  used  before  all  words  beginning  with  con- 
sonants except  those  beginning  with  silent  h,  or 
when  the  word  beginning  with  h  is  accented  on  some 
other  syllable  than  the  first. 

Acoustics  is,  not  are.  Names  of  sciences  ending 
with  ics  are  now  regarded  a.s  singular  in  number. 
Example:  Mathematics,  economics,  politics,  physics, 
gymnastics,  etc. 

Agriculturalist,  for  agriculturist.  The  first  is 
never  correct. 

Aint,  is  incorrect.     Avoid  it. 

Allude,  for  mention.  Allude  means  to  hint  at  in 
passing. 

Allow,  for  say  or  assert.     This  use  is  incorrect. 

An,  is  to  be  used  before  all  vowel  sounds,  silent  k, 
and  when  the  word  bginning  with  h  is  accented  on 


6l8   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

some  other  syllable  than  the  first.     Example  :     An 
eagle.     An  honorable  man. 

And,  for  to.  Try  to  do  it,  not  try  and  do  it.  Come 
to  see  me,  not  come  and  see  me. 

Anyhow,  is  at  all  times  questionable. 

Appreciate,  for  rise  in  value.  The  first,  though 
sometimes  so  used,  is  incorrect. 

Avocation,  for  vocation.  A  man's  business  is  his 
vocation,  and  pleasures  calling  him  from  it  are  his 
avocations ;  as,  fishing,  boating,  hunting. 

At  length,  for  at  last.  To  hear  from  a  person  at 
length  means  to  hear  minutely  or  in  detail. 

Balance,  for  remainder.  Balance  refers  to  the 
ledger  account  and  does  not  properly  convey  the 
same  meaning  as  remainder.  Example  :  He  spent 
the  balance  (for  remainder)  of  his  time  there. 

Beginner,  not  new  beginner. 

Between  you  and  I,  for 'between  you  and  me.  Pro- 
nouns must  have  their  proper  case  form. 

Bound,  for  determined.  Example :  He  is  bound 
(i.  e.,  determined}  to  go  west. 

Calculate,  is  not  to  be  used  for  intend.  Example  : 
I  calculate  (intend)  to  go. 

Can,  may.  Can  expresses  power,  ability,  or  force. 
Permission  is  asked  or  given  by  may.  Can  I  do  it, 
means  am  I  able  to  do  it.  May  I  do  it,  means  have 
I  permission  to  do  it.  Example  :  Can  (may)  I  take 
your  book  ? 

Correspond  with,  correspond  to.     Correspond  with 


ESSENTIALS    OF    LETTER    WRITING.  6lQ 

relates  to  the  exchange  of  letters.  Correspond  to, 
signifies  resemblance. 

Commence  to.  Omit  to.  We  begin  to  write  ;  we 
commence  writing. 

Couple,  signifies  two  things  united  or  having  some 
relation  to  each  other  and  not  number  alone. 

Depot.  Station  is  the  better  word  when  a  build- 
ing for  passengers  is  meant. 

Differ  with,  in  opinion  ;  differ  from  in  appearance. 

Donate,  for  give.  This  use  of  the  word  is  not  in 
good  repute. 

Done,  did.  I  have  done  it.  You  have  done  it.  He 
has  done  it.  I  did  it.  You  did  it.  He  did  it.  Use 
done  only  with  has,  had,  or  have. 

Dont.  A  contraction  of  do  not  and  properly  used 
only  when  the  latter  is  correct. 

Enthuse,  for  inspirit.  The  first  is  not  sanctioned 
by  good  usage. 

Every,  is  always  singular  in  number.  Let  every 
one  do  his  (not  their)  own  work. 

Execute,  does  not  mean  put  to  death.  '  The  law  is 
executed  when  the  criminal  is  hanged  or  imprisoned. 

Farther,  further.  Farther  properly  signifies  dis 
tance,  further,  degree  or  quantity.  As  he  walked 
farther^  saw  they  were  further  along  with  the  work 

Fellow  countrymen.  What  is  the  difference  betweer 
this  and  countrymen  ? 

Fire,  for  throw.   Nothing  can  be  fired  withouty^W 

First  two,  not  two  first. 

Gents.     Vulgar. 


62O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Get,  signifies  possession  obtained  by  exertion.  Do 
not  use  it  any  other  manner.  He  has  (not  has  got) 
red  hair.  He  will  be  left,  not^/  left. 

Graduate.  Students  do  not  graduate,  but  are  grad- 
uated. 

Guess,  for  think.  A  guess  is  an  opinion  formed 
without  sufficient  reason,  and  it  is  wrong  to  use  the 
word  if  you  do  not  wish  to  express  doubt  or  uncer- 
tainty. 

Had  I  been,  not  had  I  have  been. 

Had  better,  had  rather,  for  would  better  and  would 
rather.  There  is  some  authority  for  the  use  of  the 
first,  but  the  latter  are  the  more  modern,  and  how 
can  future  action  be  expressed  by  the  use  of  a  verb 
which  signifies  past  and  completed  action  ? 

Had  ought.      Never  use  had.     Say  ought,  ought  not. 

Haverit  no.  Omit  no.  Do  not  use  two  words 
meaning  no  in  the  same  sentence. 

Healthy,  healthful,  wholesome.  Healthy  refers  to 
living  things.  Example  :  The  man  is  healthy.  The 
food  is  wholesome.  The  surroundings  are  healthful. 

Hear,  for  listen.  We  hear  without  exertion.  We 
listen  that  we  may  hear. 

It  is  I  (not  me).  It  is  he  (not  him).  It  is  she  (not 
her). 

Last,  for  latest.  I  have  received  your  latest  (not 
last)  letter. 

Lie,  lay.  Remember  lay  expresses  transitive  action, 
and  lie  means  rest.  We  lay  the  book  on  the  table  and 
the  book  lies  where  we  have  placed  it. 


ESSENTIALS    OF    LETTER    WRITING.  621 

Learn,  for  teach.  Learn  means  to  acquire  knowl- 
edge ;  teach,  to  impart  it. 

Like,  for  as.     As  (not  like]  the  others  did. 

Loan.  "  This  word  is  a  noun,  the  verbal  form  of 
which  is  lend." — WHITE. 

Mussulmen,  for  Mussulmans.  This  word  forms  its 
plural  the  same  as  German.  Example :  Several 
Mussulmans  were  present. 

Mute,  dumb.  Mute  denies  the  act  of  speech,  dumb 
the  power  of  speech. 

Need  to  have.      Omit  to. 

None  means  no  one.  Do  not  use  with  plural  verb. 
Example  :  None  is  (not  are)  satisfied. 

Over  his  signature,  for  under  his  signature.  Writs 
are  issued  under  the  authority  of  the  court,  though 
the  signature  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  writ :  a  soldier 
fights  under  his  country's  flag,  or  by  its  authority :  a 
letter  is  issued  under  or  by  the  authority  of  the 
writer's  signature. 

Ought,  oiight  not,  never  had  ought  or  hadnt  ought  to. 

Party,  for  person.      Avoid  it. 

Quite,  is  not  to  be  used  for  nearly.  Quite  means 
wholly,  completely,  or  thoroughly. 

Restive,  for  restless.  Restive  signifies  stubborn, 
unwilling  to  move,  "balky." 

Remember,  recollect.  We  remember  without  effort 
and  recollect  with  some  exertion. 

Set,  sit.  Set  expresses  transitive  action  and  sit 
means  rest.  Example  :  Set  the  lamp  on  the  table. 


622   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

(Action.)  Sit  down  to  rest.  (Rest.)  We  set  the 
hen  and  the  hen  sits.  The  coat  sits  well. 

So,  as.  Use  so  after  all  negatives.  Example  :  He 
is  not  so  well. 

Such,  for  so.  Example  :  I  never  saw  so  (not  suc/t) 
strong  a  man. 

Two  good  ones.      Two  ones'?     How  can  this  be? 

Try,  for  make.     Make  (not  try)  an  experiment. 


Engraved  for  Practical, Book  for  Practical  People 


MANNERS  AND  USAGES  OF  SOCIETY. 


BY  MRS.  JULIA  M.  DEWEY. 


"  High  thoughts  seated  in  a  heart  of  courtesy. "—SIDNEY. 

"  Love  as  brethren,  be  pitiful,  be  courteous." —  ST.  PAUL. 

"  Prepare  yourself  for  the  world  as  the  athletae  used  to  do  for 
their  exercises  ;  oil  your  mind  and  your  manners  to  give  them  the 
necessary  suppleness  and  flexibility ;  strength  alone,  will  not  do  it. 
All  your  Greek  can  never  advance  you  from  secretary  to  envoy,  or 
from  envoy  to  ambassador  ;  but  your  address,  your  air,  your  manner, 
if  good,  may." —  LORD  CHESTERFIELD  TO  HIS  SON. 

"  Give  a  boy  address  and  accomplishments  and  you  give  him  the 
mastery  of  palaces  and  fortunes  wherever  he  goes ;  he  has  not  the 
trouble  of  earning  or  owning  them ;  they  solicit  him  to  enter  and 
possess. —  EMERSON. 

William  of  Wyckham,  the  founder  of  the  famous  Winchester 
School  in  1393,  had  inscribed  on  the  buildings  :  "Manners  maketh 
the  man." 

DEFINITION  OF  A  GENTLEMAN. 

IT  is  almost  a  definition  of  a  gentleman  to  say 
that  he  is  one  who  never  inflicts  pain.  This 
description  is  both  refined,  and,  so  far  as  it  goes, 
accurate.  He  is  mainly  occupied  in  merely  removing 
the  obstacles  which  hinder  the  free  and  unembar- 
rassed action  of  those  about  him,  and  he  concurs 
with  their  movements  rather  than  takes  the  initiative 
himself. 


624   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

His  benefits  may  be  considered  as  parallel  to  what 
are  called  the  comforts  or  conveniences  in  arrange- 
ments of  a  personal  nature,  like  an  easy  chair,  or  a 
good  fire,  which  do  their  best  in  dispelling  cold  and 
fatigue,  though  nature  provides  both  means  of  rest 
and  animal  heat  without  them. 

The  true  gentleman,  in  like  manner,  carefully 
avoids  whatever  may  cause  a  jar  or  a  jolt  in  the 
minds  of  those  with  whom  he  is  cast, — all  clashing 
of  opinion,  or  collusion  of  feeling,  all  restraint,  or 
suspicion,  or  gloom,  or  resentment,  his  great  concern 
being  to  make  every  one  at  ease,  and  at  home.  He 
has  his  eyes  on  all  his  company  ;  he  is  tender  to- 
ward the  bashful,  gentle  toward  the  distant,  and  mer- 
ciful toward  the  absurd.  He  can  recollect  to  whom 
he  is  speaking  ;  he  guards  against  unseasonable  allu- 
sions, or  topics  which  may  irritate  ;  he  is  seldom 
prominent  in  conversation,  and  never  wearisome.  He 
makes  light  of  favors  when  he  does  them,  and  seems 
to  be  receiving  when  conferring.  He  never  speaks  of 
himself  except  when  compelled,  never  defends  him- 
self by  a  mere  retort;  he  has  no  ears  for  slander  or 
gossip,  is  scrupulous  in  imparting  to  those  who  inter- 
fere with  him,  and  interprets  everything  for  the  best. 

He  is  never  mean  or  little  in  his  disputes,  never 
takes  unfair  advantage,  never  mistakes  personalities, 
or  sharp  sayings  for  arguments,  or  insinuates  evil 
which  he  dares  not  say  out. 

From  a  long-sighted  prudency,  he  observes  the 
maxLn  of  the  ancient  sage,  that  we  should  ever  con- 


MANNERS  AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  625 

duct  ourselves  toward  our  enemy  as  if  he  were  one 
day  to  be  our  friend.  He  has  too  much  good  sense 
to  be  affronted  at  insults.  He  is  too  well  employed 
to  remember  injuries,  and  too  indolent  to  bear  malice. 
He  is  patient,  forbearing  and  resigned,  on  philo- 
sophical principles  ;  he  submits  to  pain  because  it  is 
inevitable ;  to  bereavement  because  it  is  irreparable, 
and  to  death  because  it  is  his  destiny. 

CARDINAL  NEWMAN. 

COURTESY. 

This  is  love  in  society.  Love  in  relation  to  eti- 
quette. "  Love  doth  not  behave  itself  unseemly." 
Politeness  has  been  defined  as  love  in  trifles.  Cour- 
tesy is  said  to  be  love  in  little  things.  And  the  one 
secret  of  politeness  is  to  love.  Love  cannot  behave 
itself  unseemly.  You  can  put  the  most  untutored 
persons  into  the  highest  society,  and  if  they  have  a 
reservoir  of  love  in  their  hearts  they  will  not  behave 
themselves  unseemly.  They  simply  cannot  do  it. 
Carlyle  said  of  Robert  Burns  that  there  was  no  truer 
gentleman  in  Europe  than  the  ploughman  poet.  It 
was  because  he  loved  everything,  the  mouse,  and  the 
daisy,  and  all  the  things  great  and  small  that  God 
had  made.  So  with  this  simple  passport,  he  could 
mingle  with  any  society,  and  enter  courts  and  palaces 
from  his  little  cottage  on  the  banks  of  the  Ayr.  You 
know  the  meaning  of  the  word  "gentleman."  It 
means  a  gentle  man, —  a  man  who  does  things  gen- 
tly, with  love.  And  this  is  the  whole  art  and  mys- 
40 


626   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

tery  of  it.  The  gentle  man  cannot,  in  the  nature  of 
things,  do  an  ungentle,  an  ungentlemanly  thing. 
The  ungentle  soul,  the  inconsiderate,  unsympathetic 
nature  cannot  do  anything  else.  ' "  Love  doth  not 
behave  itself  unseemly."  -HENRY  DRUMMOND  IN 
4<  THE  GREATEST  THING  IN  THE  WORLD." 

MANNERS. 

How  far  are  manners  to  be  made  a  matter  of  rule  ? 
From  within  out — is  the  fundamental  law  in  man- 
ners ;  still  there  is  an  external  view  of  the  subject 
quite  worth  heeding. 

There  is  a  certain  fine  robustness  of  character  that 
is  prone  to  pay  little  heed  to  the  "  thou  shalt,"  and 
"  thou  shalt  not "  of  society  ;  and  there  is  a  certain 
spirituality  that  says  :  "  Make  your  own  rules." 

There  is  much  truth  in  both  positions,  but  it  is 
delicate  ground  to  tread  on  ;  one  needs  to  be  very 
sure-footed  and  quick-eyed  to  avoid  falls.  Upon  the 
whole,  and  for  the  most  of  us,  it  is  better  there 
should  be  a  code  of  social  laws,  well  understood  and 
rather  carefully  observed  ;  at  least,  one  should  always 
have  them  at  hand,  ready  for  use.  There  are  many 
things  that  help  to  make  life  easy  and  agreeable  that 
are  not  taught  by  intuition.  Nor  could  we  live  to- 
gether in  mutual  convenience  unless  we  agreed  upon 
certain  arbitrary  rules  as  to  daily  intercourse.  If  it 
is  well  to  have  these  common  habits  and  interchanges 
of  courtesy,  it  is  well  to  have  them  in  the  best  form, 
even  to  punctiliousness.  Without  doubt,  what  are 


MANNERS  AND   USAGES  OF  SOCIETY.  627 

called  the  manners  of  society  are  not  only  a  part  of 
gentlemanhood,  but  are  extremely  convenient.  I  am 
not  about  to  indicate  these  rules,  but  I  may  suggest 
that  in  all  matters  of  dress,  of  care  of  the  person,  of 
carriage,  of  command  of  the  features  and  voice  and 
eyes,  and  of  what  are  called  the  ways  of  good  soci- 
ety, it  is  of  great  use  to  be  well  informed.  They 
will  not  take  you  one  step  on  the  way,  but  they  will 
smooth  it,  and  the  lack  of  them  may  block  it  alto- 
gether. 

If  one  is  centrally  true,  kind,  honorable,  delicate 
and  considerate,  he  will  almost  without  fail  have 
manners  that  will  take  him  into  any  circle  where  cul- 
ture and  taste  will  prevail  over  folly. 

Still,  the  inward  seed  needs  training.  It  should 
levy  on  all  graceful  forms,  on  practice  and  discipline, 
on  observation,  on  fashion  even,  and  make  them  sub- 
serve its  native  grace. 

Watch  those  of  excellent  reputation  in  manners. 
Keep  your  eyes  open  when  you  go  to  the  metropolis, 
and  learn  its  grace;  or,  if  you  live  in  the  city,  when 
you  go  to  the  country,  mark  the  higher  quality  of 
simplicity.  Catch  the  temper  of  the  great  masters 
of  literature  ;  the  nobility  of  Scott,  the  sincerity  of 
Thackeray,  the  heartiness  of  Dickens,  the  tender- 
ness of  MacDonald,  the  delicacy  of  Tennyson,  the 
grace  of  Longfellow,  the  repose  of  Shakespeare. 
Manners  in  this  high  sense,  and  so  learned,  take  one 
far  on  in  the  world.  They  are  irresistible.  If  you 
meet  the  king  he  will  recognize  you  as  a  brother. 


628   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

They  are  a  defense  against  insult.  All  doors  fly 
open  when  he  who  wears  them  approaches.  They 
cannot  be  bought.  They  cannot  be  learned  as  from 
a  book ;  they  cannot  pass  from  lip  to  lip  ;  they  come 
from  within,  and  from  a  within  that  is  grounded  in 
truth,  honor,  delicacy,  kindness  and  consideration. 

T.  T.   MUNGER. 

There  is  no  personal  defect  which  a  well-bred  man- 
ner, a  pleasant  voice,  and  that  gentle  kindness  which 
shines  through  the  homeliest  face,  will  not  make  love- 
able.  "He  gentil  is,"  said  old  Chaucer,  "who  doth 
gentil  dedes,"  and  the  true  gentleman,  or  gentle- 
woman, always  has  a  large  following  of  lovers  and 
friends. — SELECTED. 

Do  not  underrate  polish.  A  diamond  in  the  rough 
may  possess  value,  but  a  diamond  after  the  cutter's 
tool  has  brought  out  its  smoothness  and  beauty  will 
command  a  much  greater  price  in  the  market. 

—  MARGARET  SANGSTER. 

William  Wirt's  letter  to  his  daughter  on  the  "small, 
sweet  courtesies  of  life,"  contains  a  passage  from 
which  a  deal  of  happiness  might  be  learned  :  "  I  want 
to  tell  you  a  secret.  The  way  to  make  yourself  pleas- 
ing to  others  is  to  show  that  you  care  for  them.  The 
world  is  like  the  miller  at  Mansfield,  who  cared  for 
nobody  because  nobody  cared  for  him.  And  the 
whole  world  will  serve  you  so  if  you  give  them  the 
same  cause.  Let  every  one,  therefore,  see  that  you 


MANNERS  AND   USAGES  OF  SOCIETY.  629 

do  care  for  them  by  showing  them  what  Sterne  so 
happily  calls  the  '  small,  sweet  courtesies/  in  which 
there  is  no  parade ;  whose  voice  is  to  still,  to  ease ; 
and  which  manifest  themselves  by  tender  and  affec- 
tionate looks,  and  little  kind  acts  of  attention,  giving 
others  the  preference  in  every  little  enjoyment  at  the 
table,  in  the  field,  walking,  sitting,  or  standing." 

—  SELECTED. 

The  society  of  women  is  the  school  of  good  man- 
ners.— GOETHE. 

VISITING. 

To  friends  or  very  intimate  acquaintances  visits 
may  be  left  to  create  their  own  etiquette. 

Not  to  go  too  frequently  to  the  same  house ;  not 
to  stay  too  long  when  you  do  go ;  to  let  no  intimacy 
overstep  the  bounds  of  courtesy,  are  facts  that  should 
be  appreciated.  It  is  hardly  in  good  taste  to  volun- 
teer a  visit  to  a  friend  unless  you  have  what  is  called 
a  "  standing  invitation,"  with  every  reason  to  believe 
it  was  sincerely  and  cordially  given.  Even  when 
convinced  that  such  an  invitation  is  sincere,  it  is  best 
to  apprise  you  hostess  of  the  exact  day  and  hour 
when  she  may  expect  you,  and  always  with  the 
proviso  if  it  be  convenient  to  receive  you  at  that 
time,  and  with  the  expressed  wish  that  she  will  tell 
you  candidly  if  it  is  not. 

However  close  your  intimacy,  an  unexpected  ar- 
rival may  possibly  produce  inconvenience  to  your 


630   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

hostess.  When  visits  are  attempted  as  agreeable 
surprises  they  are  very  seldom  agreeable  to  the 
surprised. 

Having  received  an  invitation,  reply  to  it  immedi- 
ately. Do  not  keep  your  friends  waiting  day  after 
day,  in  uncertainty,  not  knowing  whether  you  mean 
to  accept  or  decline  it. 

It  is  in  good  form  for  the  one  who  invites  a  visitor 
to  mention  the  length  of  the  visit.  When  a  definite 
time  is  not  stated,  it  is  often  awkward  for  the  visitor 
to  know  whether  the  invitation  is  for  a  day,  a  week, 
or  longer. 

If  the  time  is  not  mentioned  by  your  hostess, 
when  you  arrive  take  occasion  to  mention  how  long 
you  intend  to  stay,  that  your  hostess  may  make  her 
plans  accordingly. 

When  the  allotted  time  has  expired,  do  not  be  per- 
suaded to  extend  it,  unless  you  are  earnestly,  and 
with  undoubted  sincerity  invited  to  do  so.  Be  care- 
ful not  to  make  your  friends  "  twice  glad." 

On  the  other  hand,  there  should  not  be  undue 
urging  on  the  part  of  the  hostess  or  others  that  the 
visitor  should  prolong  her  visit  beyond  the  time  she 
has  fixed  upon.  This  is  rudeness  rather  than  hospi- 
tality. "  Welcome  the  coming,  speed  the  parting 
guest,"  is  a  maxim  to  be  followed. 

On  your  first  evening  enquire  about  the  hours  of 
the  house  that  you  may  be  ready  to  comply  with 
them.  Rise  early  enough  to  be  dressed  in  time  for 
breakfast.  Accommodate  yourself  to  the  regime  of 


MANNERS   AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  63 1 

the  family.  Notwithstanding  all  that  may  be  said  to 
you  about  feeling  perfectly  at  home,  and  considering 
your  friend's  house  your  own,  be  very  careful  not  to 
do  so  literally. 

Avoid  encroaching  upon  your  friend's  time.  Do 
not  expect  her  to  devote  an  undue  portion  of  it  to 
you.  When  she  is  occupied  with  household  cares, 
do  not  intrude  upon  her,  but  amuse  yourself  with 
reading,  or  some  occupation  of  your  own  until  you 
see  that  it  is  convenient  for  the  family  to  have  you 
join  them. 

Try  to  assist  in  entertaining  your  entertainers.  A 
silent  visitor,  whether  from  stupidity,  or  indolence,  or 
natural  taciturnity,  is  never  an  agreeable  one. 

While  you  are  a  guest  at  the  house  of  a  friend  do 
not  pass  too  much  of  your  time  in  visiting  at  other 
houses  unless  she  is  with  you. 

Do  not  take  the  liberty,  when  a  guest  yourself,  of 
inviting  any  of  your  friends  to  spend  a  day  or  days 
with  you. 

On  concluding  your  visit  tell  your  entertainers 
that  it  has  been  pleasant,  and  express  your  gratitude 
for  the  kindness  you  have  received  from  them  and 
the  hope  that  they  will  give  you  an  opportunity  for 
reciprocating. 

After  reaching  home  write,  within  two  or  three 
days,  to  the  friend  at  whose  house  you  have  been 
staying,  telling  her  of  your  journey  home,  and  again 
alluding  to  your  pleasant  visit. 


632   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

After  the  visit  is  over,  be  careful  not  to  repeat 
anything  that  has  come  to  your  knowledge  which 
your  entertainers  might  wish  to  remain  unknown. 
Having  been  their  guest  and  partaken  of  their  hos- 
pitality, you  are  bound,  in  honor,  to  keep  silent  on 
any  topic  that  might  injure  them  in  the  slightest  de- 
gree, if  repeated. 

The  hostess  and  members  of  her  household  have 
specific  duties  as  entertainers.  The  visitor  should  be 
met  at  the  station  either  by  the  hostess,  or  a  member 
of  her  family,  or  if  that  is  impracticable,  by  a  ser- 
vant who  should  secure  a  conveyance  for  the  guest, 
and  attend  to  the  luggage. 

So  far  as  is  possible  every  thing  in  the  guest-room 
should  be  arranged  for  the  convenience  and  comfort 
of  its  occupant.  For  such  deficiencies  as  may  be 
avoided  or  remedied,  refrain  from  making  the  absurd 
apology  that  you  consider  your  guest  "  no  stranger," 
or  that  you  regard  her  as  "one  of  the  family."  You 
are  in  duty  bound  to  do  whatever  you  can  for  the 
comfort  and  pleasure  of  your  visitor. 

You  should  not,  however,  make  your  efforts  in  this 
direction  so  apparent  as  to  lead  your  guest  to  feel 
that  you  are  exerting  yourself  for  her. 

When  your  visitor  is  about  to  leave,  make  every 
thing  ready  for  her  departure.  Let  her  be  called  at 
an  early  hour  if  she  is  to  leave  in  the  morning.  Send 
a  servant  to  strap  and  bring  down  her  trunk,  and  see 
that  an  early  breakfast  is  prepared  and  some  of  the 
family  present  to  share  it  with  the  departing  guest. 


MANNERS   AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  633 

Have  a  cab  or  carriage  at  the  door  in  due  time,  and 
let  some  member  of  the  family  accompany  her  to  the 
station,  procure  tickets  and  attend  to  the  baggage. 

VISITS  OF  CEREMONY. 

Almost  every  kind  of  social  gathering  is  now  called 
an  "At  Home,"  with  the  exception  of  a  dinner,  or 
wedding  breakfast.  These  "At  Homes"  are  taking 
tiie  place  of  the  more  elaborate  entertainments  of 
days  gone  by,  and  are  much  more  convenient,  inex- 
pensive, and  sensible.  There  are  dancing  "At  Homes," 
musical  "AtHomes,"  conversational  "At  Homes,"  and 
many  others,  and  any  of  them  may  take  place  in  the 
afternoon  or  evening.  The  etiquette  of  all  is  pre- 
cisely the  same.  Cards,  with  the  name  of  the  host- 
ess, stating  the  date  and  hour  of  the  "At  Home,"  are 
sent  out  a  fortnight  or  a  week  previous  to  the  date, 
according  to  circumstances.  If  the  entertainment  is 
to  consist  of  music,  the  word  "  Music"  appears  on 
one  corner  of  the  card ;  if  dancing,  the  word  "  Danc- 
ing." If  the  hostess  wishes  to  know  how  many  guests 
she  is  to  entertain,  she  writes  on  the  card  —  "The 
favor  of  an  answer  is  requested."  R.  S.  V.  P.  is  now 
rarely  used.  This  request  should  be  answered  with- 
out delay.  If  the  "At  Home"  is  in  the  afternoon, 
ladies  do  not  remove  their  bonnets.  Refreshments 
are  served  in  the  dining-room,  where  the  guests  re- 
pair during  the  intervals  of  music,  etc.  Small  sand- 
wiches, wafers,  cakes,  tea  and  coffee,  bon-bons,  and 
salted  almonds  are  the  ordinary  refreshments.  Fresh 


634   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE 

fruit  is  also  on  the  list,  and  when  used,  plates  are 
necessary.  Otherwise,  unless  ices  are  included  in  the 
refreshments,  no  plates  are  used. 

At  small  five  o'clock  teas,  tea,  coffee  or  chocolate 
is  passed  in  the  drawing-room,  and  not  ordinarily  by 
a  servant.  The  hostess  dispenses  the  tea  herself, 
and  if  gentlemen  are  present,  they  naturally  under- 
take the  task  of  waiting  upon  the  guests.  In  the 
absence  of  gentlemen,  any  friends  of  the  hostess  will 
volunteer  to  assist  her.  Gloves  are  not  removed 
when  tea  and  wafers  only  are  taken.  At  an  after- 
noon tea,  the  hostess  may  wear  a  "  tea-gown  "  or  not, 
but  the  guests  are  much  more  elegant  in  rather  plain, 
high,  and  close-fitting  dresses. 

Gentlemen  should  not  appear  at  an  afternoon  en- 
tertainment in  evening  dress.  As  to  wearing  gloves, 
the  fashion  for  gentlemen  is  variable,  and  if  one  is  in 
doubt  in  regard  to  the  prevailing  custom,  he  must 
ascertain  from  some  one  who  knows. 

CALLS  AND  CARDS. 

Different  writers  on  etiquette  differ  in  regard  to 
the  matter  of  first  calls.  As  a  rule,  however,  resi- 
dents call  first  upon  new  comers.  In  Washington 
the  custom  is  reversed,  and  new-comers  call  first 
upon  residents.  Calling  upon  strangers  should  be 
considered  not  merely  an  act  of  politeness,  but  of 
common  humanity.  In  a  place  of  any  size,  one  can- 
not call  upon  all  new-comers,  but  a  little  thought, 
and  a  little  sense  of  obligation,  will  lead  to  a  wise 


MANNERS   AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  635 

discrimination  in  this  matter,  and  absolve  many  from 
the  charge  of  indifference  and  incivility.  First  calls 
should  be  returned  within  a  week.  In  cities  and 
large  towns  it  is  sometimes  allowable  to  send  cards 
instead  of  calling.  This  is  not  allowable  in  return- 
ing first  calls. 

When  calling,  a  lady  should  send  in  her  card  by 
a  servant,  but  should  not  give  it  to  the  one  for  whom 
the  call  is  intended  should  she  meet  her  at  the  door. 
When  a  gentleman  calls  on  ladies  who  are  at  home, 
if  he  knows  them  well  he  does  not  send  in  his  card, 
but  his  name.  If  he  does  not  know  them  well,  he 
sends  in  a  card.  In  leaving  cards  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  leave  seven  or  eight,  should  the  call  be  made 
upon  that  number,  but  it  is  customary  to  leave  two, 
one  for  the  lady  of  the  house,  the  other  for  other 
members  of  the  family  or  guests.  Sometimes,  to 
avoid  leaving  many  cards,  the  end  of  the  card  is 
rolled  over  toward  the  name,  and  this  indicates  that 
the  call  is  intended  for  all. 

In  returning  calls,  observe  the  exact  etiquette  of 
the  person  who  made  the  first  call.  A  call  must  not 
be  returned  by  a  card  only,  nor  a  card  by  a  call.  If 
a  personal  call  is  made,  return  it  by  a  personal  call ; 
if  a  card  is  left  without  an  enquiry  as  to  whether  you 
are  at  home,  return  the  same  courtesy.  If  a  caller 
leaves  the  cards  of  the  gentlemen  of  her  family,  re- 
turn those  of  the  gentlemen  of  your  family. 

A  lady  often  leaves  her  own  and  two  of  her  hus- 
band's cards,  one  for  the  lady,  and  one  for  the  gen- 


636   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

tlemen  of  the  house.  When  cards  have  been  left 
once  in  the  season  it  is  not  necessary  to  leave  them 
again  during  the  season. 

After  a  dinner  party  a  guest  must  call  in  person,  and 
enquire  for  the  hostess.  After  balls,  amateur  con- 
certs, theatricals,  "at  homes,"  etc.,  unless  personal 
calls  are  made,  cards  should  be  left  by  all  invited 
guests  within  a  week  after  the  invitations,  especially  if 
the  invited  guest  has  been  obliged  to  decline.  After 
a  "  tea  "  (unless  it  is  a  ''high  tea  "  ),  it  is  not  consid- 
ered necessary  to  call  nor  to  leave  cards,  but  the  com- 
pliment should  be  returned  by  giving  a  tea  and  invit- 
ing all  of  one's  entertainers. 

In  sending  to  enquire  for  a  person's  health,  cards 
may  be  sent  by  a  servant,  with  a  kindly  message. 
When  gentlemen  who  are  calling  do  not  find  ladies 
in,  they  should  leave  cards  for  the  master  and  mis- 
tress of  the  house  and  for  the  young  ladies. 

No  gentleman  should  call  on  a  lady  unless  she 
asks  him  to  do  so,  or  unless  he  brings  a  letter  of  in- 
troduction, or  unless  he  accompanies  a  friend  who  is 
sufficiently  intimate  to  invite  him  to  call.  If  he  re- 
ceives an  invitation  from  a  stranger,  to  dinner,  or  to 
a  large  party,  he  is  bound  to  send  an  immediate  an- 
swer, and  to  call  after  the  entertainment.  After  any 
entertainment  (not  by  a  stranger),  a  gentleman 
should  leave  his  card  in  person,  instead  of  sending  it. 
If  a  lady  is  invited  to  any  entertainment  by  a  new 
acquaintance,  whether  the  invitation  comes  through 
a  friend  or  not,  she  should  immediately  leave  cards 


MANNERS   AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  637 

and  send  either  a  regret  or  acceptance.  To  lose 
time  in  this  matter  is  a  rudeness.  Whether  she  at- 
tends the  entertainment  or  not,  she  should  call  after 
it,  within  a  week. 

If  invited  to  a  reception  or  to  a  wedding,  and 
obliged  to  decline,  it  is  proper  to  send  a  visiting  card 
on  the  day  of  the  reception  or  wedding.  Calls  of  con- 
gratulation should  be  made  without  delay,  as  also 
visits  of  condolence.  Unless  one  is  very  intimate  in 
a  family,  it  is  in  better  taste  to  leave  a  card  than  to 
intrude  upon  private  sorrow. 

The  time  of  calling  must,  in  every  case,  be  settled 
by  the  custom  of  the  place.  After  two  o'clock  and 
before  six  is,  however,  generally  safe. 

It  is  better  to  deliver  a  letter  of  introduction  in 
person,  but  if  the  letter  is  sent,  enclose  a  card  with 
your  address  upon  it. 

A  card  of  courtesy  should  be  sent  with  flowers, 
books  or  any  small  gifts  which  are  freely  offered 
among  intimate  friends.  The  gift,  however  small, 
should  be  acknowledged  at  once,  but  not  by  a  card. 
A  note  should  be  written. 

THE  ETIQUETTE  OF  WEDDINGS. 
The  invitations  to  a  wedding  should  be  sent  by  the 
parents  of  the  bride,  or  if  the  parents  are  not  living, 
by  the  people  who  are  to  give  the  wedding.  These 
invitations  should  be  engraved  on  note-paper  and 
sent  two  weeks  before  the  wedding.  If  friends  are 
invited  to  a  wedding  breakfast,  that  fact  is  stated  on 


638   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

a  separate  card  enclosed  in  the  same  envelope.  There 
is  also  often  enclosed  another  card  stating  when  and 
where  the  bride  will  receive  her  friends  after  the  wed- 
ding journey.  If  the  wedding  ceremony  is  at  the 
church,  it  is  probable  that  many  more  will  be  invited 
to  the  church  than  to  the  house.  This  should  not 
give  offense.  To  these  invitations  the  invited  guests 
make  no  response  save  to  go,  or  leave  cards,  unless 
there  is  a  breakfast  at  which  the  guests  sit  at  table. 
In  that  case  an  invitation  should  be  accepted  or  de- 
clined, that  the  hostess  may  arrange  her  table  accord- 
ingly. All  invited  guests  are  expected  to  call  on  the 
married  couple,  and  if  possible  to  invite  them  during 
the  year.  If  the  wedding  is  in  church,  the  bride  is 
generally  driven  to  the  church  in  a  carriage  with  her 
father.  Her  mother  and  other  relations  precede  her 
and  take  the  front  seat.  The  bridesmaids  also  pre- 
cede her,  and  await  her  in  the  chancel  of  the  church. 
The  ushers  then  form  the  procession  —  first  the 
ushers,  two  and  two ;  then  the  bridesmaids,  two  and 
two  ;  then  the  bride,  leaning  on  her  father's  right  arm. 
As  the  cortege  reaches  the  altar,  the  ushers  break 
ranks  and  go  to  the  right  and  left,  the  bridesmaids 
do  the  same,  leaving  a  space  for  the  bridal  pair.  The 
clergyman  is  already  in  his  place,  and  the  bridegroom, 
who  has  been  waiting,  takes  his  place  by  the  bride. 
After  the  ceremony  the  bridal  pair  walk  down  the 
aisle,  arm-in-arm,  and  are  driven  home.  The  rest  fol- 
low. After  congratulations  and  some  conversation, 
refreshments  are  announced.  The  bride  and  groom 


MANNERS   AND   USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  639 

lead  the  guests  to  the  dining-room,  then  come  the 
groom's  father  with  the  bride's  mother,  the  bride's 
father  with  the  groom's  mother,  the  best  man  with  the 
first  bridesmaid,  then  the  bridesmaids  with  attendant 
gentlemen,  and  then  other  invited  guests.  After 
giving  an  hour  and  a  half  to  her  guests,  the  bride  re- 
tires to  change  her  dress.  She  soon  returns  in  her 
traveling  dress,  and  is  met  by  the  groom,  who  has 
also  changed  his  dress,  and  they  are  then  driven  to 
the  station. 

Of  course  there  are  quieter  weddings,  and  more 
simple  arrangements.  Many  brides  prefer  to  be 
married  in  traveling  dress  and  hat,  and  leave 
immediately  without  congratulations.  Weddings 
should  be  gorgeous,  elegant,  plain  or  simple,  accord- 
ing to  the  wishes  and  circumstances  of  the  most 

o 

interested  parties. 

The  bride's  dress  is  a  matter  of  her  own  taste. 
Whether  the  wedding  is  in  the  morning  or  evening 
the  bride  may  be  in  full  dress.  The  groom  should 
not  wear  a  dress-coat  before  seven  in  the  evening. 

Ladies  should  not  remove  their  bonnets  at  a  wed- 
ding breakfast,  but  if  a  reception  is  given  in  the 
evening,  guests  are  expected  to  be  in  evening  dress. 
In  the  matter  of  gloves  gentlemen  should  conform  to 
the  prevailing  fashion. 

At  a  wedding  breakfast  the  refreshments  should 
consist  of  both  hot  and  cold  dishes — such  as  bouil- 
lon, salads,  oysters,  ices,  jellies,  etc. 


640   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

If  an  evening  wedding  reception  is  given,  refresh- 
ments are  similar  to  those  of  other  evening  enter- 
tainments. They  may  be  elaborate,  or  simple.  In 
either  case  the  wedding  cake  is  quite  essential,  and 
should  be  cut  by  the  bride.  Wedding  cake  is  no 
longer  sent  about.  It  is  neatly  packed  in  boxes,  and 
each  guest  takes  one  if  she  likes,  as  she  leaves  the 
house. 

It  is  a  pleasant  custom,  if  not  overdone,  to  send 
presents  to  the  bride.  They  may  be  sent  any  time 
within  a  month  of  the  wedding.  The  bride-elect 
should  write  a  note  of  thanks  to  every  one  who 
sends  a  present,  before  she  leaves  home.  These 
notes  should  be  written  on  note  paper  rather  than 
on  cards.  It  is  not  necessary  to  wait  for  an  invita- 
tion to  a  wedding  before  sending  a  present,  although 
it  is  quite  customary.  All  persons  who  send  gifts 
should  be  invited  to  the  wedding,  but  all  who  are 
invited  are  not  under  obligation  to  send  presents. 
Wedding  presents,  like  any  other,  should  be  free 
gifts,  and  until  they  are,  what  should  be  a  pleasure 
will  be  turned  into  a  burden. 

It  is  not  in  good  form  for  the  groom  to  furnish 
any  thing  for  his  own  wedding  but  the  ring  and 
bouquet  for  the  bride,  presents  for  the  bridesmaids 
and  the  best  man,  and  some  token  to  the  ushers. 
He  also  pays  the  clergyman,  or  the  best  man  does  it 
for  him. 


MANNERS  AND  USAGES  OF  SOCIETY.  641 

TABLE  USAGES  AND    ETIQUETTE. 

"  Familiarity  with  table  etiquette  can  be  learned 
only  by  the  constant  practice  of  courtesies,  which  are 
acknowledged  to  be  sensible  and  beautiful." 

Whatever  the  hour  of  a  dinner  or  high  tea,  the 
guests  should  take  care  to  be  punctual  to  the  minute. 
After  removing  wraps,  the  lady  and  her  escort  should 
descend  to  the  hall,  and  possibly  there  the  gentleman 
will  find  a  card  with  his  name  and  that  of  the  lady 
whom  he  is  to  take  in  to  dinner.  If  not,  he  will  be 
informed  by  the  hostess  whom  he  is  to  take  in.  In 
entering  the  drawing-room  the  lady  should  precede 
the  gentleman,  and  should  not  take  his  arm.  At  a 
dinner,  or  any  other  visit  of  ceremony,  the  guests 
should  greet  the  host  and  hostess,  or  those  receiving, 
as  soon  as  possible  after  entering  the  room.  When 
dinner  (or  tea)  is  announced,  the  host  leads  the  way 
with  the  lady  for  whom  the  dinner  is  especially  given, 
and  the  hostess  follows  last  with  the  gentleman  whom 
she  wishes  to  honor.  These  honored  guests  sit  at 
the  right  of  host  and  hostess  respectively.  The  other 
ladies  and  gentlemen  are  arranged  so  as  to  separate 
married  couples  as  far  as  possible.  Sometimes  the 
place  of  each  guest  at  the  table  is  designated  by  a 
card  with  his  or  her  name  written  upon  it,  beside  the 
plate  A  gentleman  is  expected  to  be  attentive  to 
the  lady  he  takes  in,  who  is  seated  at  his  right.  He 
is  also  to  be  somewhat  attentive  to  the  one  at  his  left, 
and  to  the  one  opposite  him. 
4' 


642   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

The  table  should  be  laid  with  the  greatest  care. 
After  it  has  been  drawn  out  to  its  proper  length,  it 
should  be  covered  with  a  cotton  flannel  table-cloth, 
and  over  that  there  should  be  a  perfectly  clean,  and 
perfectly  ironed,  white  table-cloth.  The  finer  the 
damask  the  better,  but  cleanliness  is  the  great  essen- 
tial. The  long  fold  of  the  cloth  down  the  middle 
serves  as  the  mathematical  center  of  the  table.  It 
adds  much  to  the  attractiveness  of  a  table  to  have  a 
center  ornament.  This  may  consist  of  flowers;  or 
fruit,  and  should  be  high  or  low,  according  to  the 
prevailing  fashion.  It  also  adds  much  to  have  laid 
in  regular  order  at  each  plate  a  few  flowers  tied  with 
ribbon.  These  flowers  may  be  of  one  kind,  or  many. 
It  is,  perhaps,  more  customary  to  use  a  variety  at 
lunches,  and  but  one  kind,  or,  at  the  most,  two  kinds, 
at  dinner.  Fancy  dishes  filled  with  bon-bons  are  also 
used  in  ornamenting  a  table.  Every  thing  should 
have  its  exact  place  upon  the  table.  The  knives,  the 
forks,  the  spoons,  the  glass,  the  napkins,  salt-cellars, 
and  carafes  should  be  definitely  placed  so  as  not  to 
suggest  that  they  have  been  carelessly  thrown  on- 

When  the  table  is  first  laid,  there  should  be  as 
many  glasses,  knives,  forks,  and  spoons  as  may  be 
needed  before  the  table  is  cleared  for  dessert.  If  a 
salt-box  is  not  placed  at  each  plate,  there  should,  at 
least,  be  enough  to  accommodate  all.  If  the  dinner 
consists  of  several  courses,  the  knives,  forks,  and 
spoons  used  are  removed  after  each  course.  Before 
the  dessert  is  brought  on,  everything  should  be 


MANNERS   AND   USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  643 

cleared  from  the  table,  except  the  cloth.  Even  with 
the  simplest  dinner,  it  is  well  to  have  dishes  of  meat 
and  vegetables,  and  the  condiments  removed.  These 
matters  may  seem  unimportant,  but  they  are  not. 
Every  elegant  custom  observed  adds  so  much  to  the 
refinement  of  our  lives. 

Spoons,  forks,  etc.,  for  the  dessert  should  be  laid 
at  each  plate  as  they  are  needed.  The  small  spoon 
for  the  after-dinner  coffee  should  be  brought  with 
the  coffee. 

There  are  a  few  rules  in  dining  or  in  eating  at  any 
time,  which  should  never  be  violated.  Nothing 
more  plainly  shows  the  well-bred  person  than  his 
manners  at  table.  He  may  be  well-dressed  or  may 
converse  well,  but  if  he  is  unrefined,  his  manners  at 
table  will  expose  him.  There  are  people  who  are 
happy  in  their  manner  of  eating  as  in  everything 
else ;  but  if  one  has  not  had  the  advantage  of  early 
training,  it  is  safe  to  study  minute  points  of  table 
etiquette,  that  he  may  learn  to  eat  without  offending 
the  sensitive  taste  of  the  well-bred.  If  one  defies 
the  regulations  that  society  has  made  relative  to 
table  manners,  he  is  classed  as  decidedly  ill-bred  or 
ignorant.  A  few  hints  are  as  follows  : 

Sit  reasonably  near  the  table,  neither  too  near  nor 
too  far  away. 

Never  place  the  elbows  on  the  table. 

Do  not  bend  over  the  plate. 

Do  not  spread  the  elbows  when  cutting  meat,  etc. 


644   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

While  waiting  to  be  served,  the  knife,  fork,  or  any 
table  article  should  be  left  untouched.  The  hands 
should  be  quietly  folded  in  the  lap  until  one  has  been 
served. 

The  napkin  should  be  spread  over  the  lap  when 
one  first  sits  down  at  the  table.  It  is  considered 
outre  to  tuck  the  napkin  under  the  chin. 

It  is  proper  to  begin  eating  as  soon  as  served, 
although  there  should  be  no  indecorous  haste.  An 
exception  to  this  rule  is,  that  no  one  should  begin  to 
eat  the  dessert  until  all  are  served. 

The  old,  or  the  honored  guest  should  be  served 
first  —  that  is,  if  they  are  ladies. 

At  small  dinners,  or  lunches,  or  suppers,  the  hostess 
is  sometimes  served  first.  This  is  a  help  to  the 
uninitiated,  who  can  observe  the  hostess  and  do 
likwise. 

It  is  not  proper  to  reach  in  order  to  help  one's  self 
to  anything.  If  servants  are  not  near,  a  polite  re- 
quest that  the  dish  be  passed  should  be  made  of  some 
one  at  the  table.  The  mouth  should  not  be  filled 
full,  and  it  should  be  closed  when  the  food  is  chewed. 
Smacking  the  lips,  or  drawing  in  the  breath  when 
eating  soup,  drinking  coffee,  etc.,  is  vulgar,  and  most 
offensive  to  the  well-bred. 

One  should  not  attempt  to  eat  the  last  drop  of 
soup,  nor  the  last  morsel  of  food  on  the  plate. 

The  knife  is  used  in  cutting  up  the  food  but  it 
should  not  convey  the  food -to  the  mouth.  The  fork 
should  be  used  for  this  purpose.  There  is  a  proper 


MANNERS   AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  645 

way  of  holding  knife  and  fork  that  can  be  learned 
best  by  observing  some  one  who  does  it  properly. 
The  fork  should  be  raised  laterally  to  the  mouth, 
with  the  right  hand ;  the  elbow  should  never  be 
crooked  so  as  to  bring  the  hand  around  at  a  right 
angle,  or  the  fork  directly  opposite  the  mouth. 

The  fork  should  not  be  overloaded.  It  is  said 
that  to  pack  meat  and  vegetables  upon  the  fork  is  a 
common  American  vulgarity,  originating  in  the  hur- 
ried way  of  eating  at  railway  stations  and  hotels. 
It  is  an  unhealthy  and  an  ill-mannered  habit.  To 
take  but  little  on  the  fork  at  a  time,  a  moderate 
mouthful,  shows  good  manners  and  refinement. 

The  knife  must  not  be  put  into  the  mouth.  It  is 
considered  almost  a  barbarism. 

It  is  a  disputed  question  what  to  do  with  the  knife 
and  fork  when  the  plate  is  passed  for  a  second  sup- 
ply. (This  is  not  done  at  a  formal  dinner.)  It 
seems  the  better  plan  not  to  leave  them  on  the  plate, 
as  they  are  liable  to.  fall  off,  or  to  be  in  the  way,  but 
to  hold  them  in  the  right  hand  or  to  place  them  on 
the  table  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  soil  the  cloth. 
When  tea,  coffee  or  other  liquid  food  is  taken  from  a 
spoon  it  should  be  from  the  side.  A  writer  on  table 
manners  says  :  "  The  spoon  has  its  Scylla  and 
Charybdis,  and  if  a  careless  eater  makes  a  hissing 
sound  as  he  eats  his  soup,  the  well-bred  eater  looks 
around  with  dismay." 

Tea  or  coffee  should  be  drunk  from  the  cup  and 
not  from  the  saucer. 


646   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Pears  and  apples  should  be  peeled  with  a  silver 
knife,  cut  into  quarters,  and  then  picked  up  with  the 
ringers. 

Grapes  should  be  eaten  from  behind  the  half-closed 
hand,  the  stones  and  skins  falling  into  the  fingers  un- 
observed, and  thence  to  the  plate. 

If  necessary  to  eject  anything  from  the  mouth 
while  eating,  use  the  fork  in  conveying  it  from  the 
mouth  to  the  plate. 

Fruit  stones  may  be  removed  with  the  fingers  and 
placed  upon  the  plate. 

If  a  plate  of  food  is  sent  to  a  person,  at  the  table, 
that  person  should  keep  it,  unless  particularly  re- 
quested to  pass  it  to  some  one  else.  A  hostess 
should  not  apologize  for  the  failure  of  any  dish.  All 
small  preferences  for  any  dish  should  be  kept  in  the 
background.  Neither  host  nor  hostess  should  press 
guests  unduly  to  eat.  It  is  not  a  delicate  compliment. 

Guests  should  not  ask  for  a  second  supply  of  soup 
or  fish. 

Servants  should  not  be  reproved  in  the  presence  of 
guests,  even  if  awkward,  or  careless. 

All  unpleasant  topics  of  conversation  should  be 
avoided  at  table.  If  any  guest  so  far  forgets  the  rules 
of  good  breeding  as  to  speak  disparagingly  of  others, 
the  host  or  hostess  should  use  tact  in  turning  the  at- 
tention  of  the  party  to  something  else.  A  gossip  is 
always  deemed  a  nuisance  in  really  polite  society, 
but  especially  so  at  table.  Conversation  relating  to 
sickness  should  be  banished  from  the  table. 


MANNERS   AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  647 

When  the  dinner  is  over,  the  hostess  indicates  it 
by  rising  from  the  table,  and  the  guests  should  follow. 

At  the  close  of  a  fashionable  dinner  or  tea,  or  at  a 
hotel,  no  one  folds  his  napkin.  It  should  be  left  at 
the  side  of  the  plate  unfolded.  After  a  social  tea, 
or  breakfast,  the  napkin  should  be  folded.  The 
hostess  does  not  fold  her  napkin  until  all  the  guests 
have  done  so.  Every  lady  who  aspires  to  elegant 
housekeeping  should  remember  that  she  must  not 
allow  the  same  napkin  to  be  put  on  her  table  twice. 
Once  used  it  should  be  sent  to  the  laundry  before  it 
is  used  again.  Especially  should  a  guest  have  a 
fresh  napkin  at  every  meal. 

Napkin  rings  at  ceremonious  meals  are  not  used. 
A  tooth-pick  should  be  used  only  when  a  person  is 
entirely  alone. 

In  inviting  to  a  dinner,  or  to  any  company  of 
limited  numbers,  the  hostess  should  be  careful  to 
select  congenial  spirits. 

At  the  close  of  a  ceremonious  visit  of  any  kind 
the  departing  guest  should  make  his  adieux  to  host 
and  hostess  or  other  entertainers  before  going  to  the 
dressing-room  to  don  wraps. 

OUTDOOR  ETIQUETTE. 

Only  a  quiet  demeanor  is  allowable  on  the  street 
Loud  talk  and  laughter  is  rude. 
Care   should   be  taken   to    recognize   friends   and 
acquaintances  on  the  street 


648   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

A  gentleman  takes  off  his  hat  when  he  meets 
gentlemen  or  ladies  whom  he  knows.  It  is  an  in- 
excusable rudeness  not  to  do  so. 

In  this  country,  a  lady  bows  first  when  she  meets 
a  gentleman  acquaintance  on  the  street. 

A  bow,  when  people  are  near  each  other,  should 
be  accompanied  by  some  polite  salutation,  and  the 
name  should  be  added,  as,  "  Good  morning,  Mr. 
Brown."  In  bowing,  the  face  should  show  respect 
to  acquaintances,  and  cordiality  to  friends. 

If  a  gentleman  is  walking,  or  driving  with  a  lady, 
he  should  take  off  his  hat  to  any  lady  whom  she 
recognizes. 

It  is  impolite  for  people  to  gather  in  groups  on 
the  sidewalk  and  obstruct  the  way. 

If  two  people  who  wish  to  converse  with  each 
other  meet,  one  should  turn  and  walk  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  other  is  going. 

Well-bred  people  do  not  eat  fruit,  nuts,  nor  any 
thing  else  on  the  street. 

When  a  lady  with  whom  a  gentleman  is  un- 
acquainted, addresses  an  enquiry  to  him  on  the 
street,  or  when  he  has  restored  something  'which 
she  has  inadvertently  dropped,  he  should  touch  his 
hat  ceremoniously  and  with  some  phrase,  or  accent 
of  respect  add  grace  to  a  civility.  The  lady  should 
not  fail  to  acknowledge  the  courtesy. 

Should  ladies  unattended  be  observed  by  a  gen- 
tleman acquaintance  when  alighting  from  or  entering 
a  carriage,  he  should  at  once  proffer  his  assistance ; 


MANNERS   AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  649 

or  if  familiarity  and  his  own  wish  sanction  it,  he  may 
accompany  them  to  any  place  they  may  be  about  to 
enter.  In  attending  them  into  any  shop  or  store  he 
should  always  'give  them  precedence,  holding  the 
door  from  without  if  practicable. 

It  is  rude  to  turn  and  look  at  people  after  they 
have  passed.  It  is  rude  to  stare  at  them  if  peculiar 
in  dress  or  manner. 

Gentlemen  should  carefully  avoid  all  semblance  of 
staring  at  ladies  on  the  street,  and  should  make  no 
comment,  even  of  a  complimentary  nature,  in  a  voice 
that  can  possibly  reach  their  ears. 

Gentlemen  should  show  ladies  the  most  punctilious 
politeness  on  the  street  or  elsewhere. 

Walking  with  them,  gentlemen  should,  of  course, 
assume  the  relative  position  best  adapted  to  protect 
them  from  inconveniences  or  danger.  No  general 
rule  can  be  laid  down  in  regard  to  offering  the  arm 
to  ladies  on  the  street.  Where  persons  are  known, 
local  custom  will  be  the  best  guide.  At  night  the 
arm  should  always  be  offered.  To  relatives  or 
elderly  ladies  it  is  always  a  proper  courtesy,  as  it  is  to 
every  woman,  when  a  gentleman  can  thus  most  effectu- 
ally secure  her  safety  or  comfort. 

MANNERS  AT  CHURCH. 

Good  taste  dictates  the  most  quiet  and  unnotice- 
able  bearing  at  church.  Some  one  says  it  is  a  part 
of  one's  religion  not  to  disturb  the  religion  of  others. 
One  should  enter  early  enough  to  be  well  seated  be- 


650   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

fore  the  service  begins.  If  unavoidably  late,  one 
should  enter  quietly  between  parts  of  the  service. 
To  attend  politely,  but  very  unostentatiously,  to  the 
little  courtesies  that  may  render  others  comfortable, 
to  avoid  all  rude  staring  and  every  semblance  of 
irreverence,  will  appeal  to  all  well-bred  people  as  re- 
quired by  decorum.  All  nodding,  whispering  and 
exchanging  glances  in  church  are  in  bad  taste.  In 
attending  a  church  of  a  different  denomination  from 
one's  own,  it  is  the  better  way  to  comply,  as  far  as 
possible,  with  all  the  ceremonies  observed,  even  if 
some  of  these  observances  are  not  in  conformity  with 
our  own  opinions  and  feelings.  It  is  unpardonable 
to  show  curiosity,  or  to  ridicule  ceremonies  that  may 
seem  peculiar. 

In  entering  a  church,  a  lady  precedes  a  gentleman. 
When  a  lady  is  to  take  a  seat  in  a  pew  already  par- 
tially occupied  by  gentlemen,  it  is  not  now  considered 
necessary  that  the  gentlemen  should  file  out  and  give 
her  the  seat  nearest  the  corner. 

MANNERS  IN  PLACES  OF  AMUSEMENT. 

Perhaps  nowhere  are  bad  manners  so  disagreeable 
as  in  public  places  of  amusement.  These  being  places 
to  which  people  are  admitted  on  payment  of  a  fee,  it 
becomes  actual  dishonesty  when  they  are  defrauded 
of  the  pleasure  they  have  paid  for  by  the  conduct  of 
those  about  them.  A  gay  group  of  acquaintances 
who  chat  freely  and  audibly  during  a  sweet  strain  in 


MANNERS   AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  65! 

opera  or  oratorio,  whose  smothered  laughter  obscures 
the  light  and  shade  of  the  music's  loveliest  passages, 
are,  for  the  moment,  thieves  and  robbers.  Not  that 
they  appreciate  the  enormity  of  their  ill-breeding  ;  far 
from  it ;  offenses  against  taste  are  always  very  lightly 
esteemed  by  those  who  commit  them ;  but  the  amount 
of  distress  they  cause,  the  suffering  they  inflict  upon 
innocent  people  who  wish  to  listen,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  insult  they  offer  to  the  performers,  can  hardly  be 
over-stated. — SELECTED. 

In  going  to  a  place  of  entertainment  it  is  not  polite 
to  performers  or  audience  to  arrive  late.  One  should 
arrive  in  season,  take  his  seat  quietly,  and  remain 
quiet  and  attentive  throughout  the  whole  entertain- 
ment. If  there  is  any  delay  before  the  entertainment 
begins,  the  time  should  not  be  spent  in  loud  laugh- 
ing or  talking.  Nothing  should  be  done  to  attract 
attention.  Eating  candy,  nuts,  or  anything  else,  at 
a  concert  or  other  public  occasion,  is  ill-bred. 

It  is  the  height  of  ill  manners  to  leave  the  place 
before  the  entertainment  is  concluded,  in  order  to 
avoid  passing  out  with  the  crowd.  Loud  and  contin- 
ued applause  is  in  bad  taste. 

In  other  public  places,  manners  sometimes  chal- 
lenge criticism.  All  pushing,  taking  the  best  places 
and  occupying,  in  a  thronged  conveyance,  more  room 
than  a  ticket  entitles  one  to  take,  are  contrary  to 
good  manners.  Gentlemen  should  give  up  their 
seats  to  ladies  who  are  standing  in  a  car.  This 


652   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

polite  custom  seems  to  be  more  and  more  ignored, 
but  it  should  not  be  so.  Ladies  should  not  fail  to 
acknowledge  this  courtesy,  nor  any  other. 

ETIQUETTE  OF  INTRODUCTION. 

In  point  of  precedence  in  presenting,  the  younger 
woman  should  be  presented  to  the  older;  a  gentle- 
man to  a  lady.  In  introducing  a  professional  man, 
his  title  should  be  named.  The  lady  in  her  own 
home  should  always  shake  hands  when  a  guest  is 
presented.  Men  should  shake  hands  with  each  other. 
At  a  dinner  party,  a  few  minutes  before  dinner,  the 
hostess  should  introduce  to  a  lady  the  gentleman 
who  is  to  take  her  in  to  dinner,  but  she  should  make 
no  further  introductions,  except  in  the  case  of  a  dis- 
tinguished stranger,  to  whom  all  the  company  are 
introduced.  The  room  where  they  meet  is  a  suffi- 
cient guarantee  that  they  can  converse  if  they  have 
not  been  formally  introduced. 

At  a  ball  the  presentations  should  be  distinctly 
formal.  Hand-shaking  is  not  proper.  Ball-room  in- 
troductions are  supposed  to  mean,  on  the  part  of  the 
gentleman,  either  an  intention  to  dance  with  the 
young  lady,  to  walk  with  her,  or  to  talk  with  her,  or 
to  show  her  some  attention. 

Introductions  which  take  place  out  of  doors,  as  on 
a  tennis  ground,  in  the  street,  or  in  any  casual  way, 
are  not  to  be  considered  formal  unless  the  lady 
chooses  so  to  consider  them.  A  lady  need  not  after- 


MANNERS   AND    USAGES    OF   SOCIETY.  653 

ward  recognize  a  gentleman  if  she  does  not  wish  to 
do  so.      It  is,  however,  more  polite  to  bow. 

After  a  gentleman  has  been  introduced  to  a  lady 
he  must  wait  for  her  to  bow  first  before  he  ventures 
to  claim  her  as  an  acqaintance.  When  two  strangers 
are  presented  it  is  well  for  the  one  presenting  to  say 
something  which  may  break  the  ice  and  make  the 
conversation  easy,  and  agreeable  ;  as,  for  instance, 
"  Mrs.  Jones,  allow  me  to  present  my  friend,  Mrs. 
White,  of  New  York."  People  who  are  introduced 
should  make  some  conversation  with  each  other,  and 
not  turn  rudely  away  without  a  word.  At  any  func- 
tion less  than  a  large  ball  it  is  always  proper  to  add 
a  little  note  of  interest  to  the  presentation  which 
leads  the  way  for  conversation. 

A  hostess  should  take  pains  to  introduce  shy 
people. 

CORRESPONDENCE. 

Conventional  forms  of  letters  aud  cards  —  Letters  of 
friendship,  notes  of  acceptance,  etc. 

Letter  writing  as  once  carried  on  is  becoming  a 
lost  art.  An  almost  perfect  postal  service,  cheap 
postage,  telegraph,  telephone,  type-writer,  and  various 
other  less  direct  causes  have  nearly  done  away  with 
correspondence  in  the  old  sense. 

The  writing  of  short  letters  or  notes  has  corre- 
spondingly increased.  There  is  much  attention  now 
paid  to  the  paper  on  which  letters  are  written.  A 
style  of  paper  always  considered  in  good  taste  for 
letters  of  friendship  or  invitations,  etc.,  is  the  thick 


654   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

white  or  cream,  unruled  note-paper,  folded  square 
and  put  into  a  square  envelope.  There  are  three 
desirable  sizes. 

Sealing  wax  is  now  rarely  used. 

Colored  paper  decorated  in  one  corner  with  flowers, 
etc.,  is  not  desirable. 

The  plan  of  having  all  the  note  paper  marked  with 
the  address  is  an  admirable  one,  as  it  ensures  neces- 
sary information  concerning  the  place  to  which  the 
answer  is  to  be  sent,  an  item  often  omitted  by  absent- 
minded  people. 

This  address  should  be  printed  or  engraved  at  the 
head  of  the  paper  in  rather  small,  plain  letters,  and 
may  be  in  colors,  although  plain  black  is  preferable. 
The  ink  for  writing  should  invariably  be  black.  Good 
penmanship  is  desirable,  but  what  style  of  penmanship 
is  preferable,  is  difficult  to  be  decided.  Penmanship 
is  said  to  be  characteristic  of  the  writer,  therefore 
a  cramped,  slovenly  handwriting  should  be  avoided. 

By  custom,  a  formal  letter  consists  of  six  parts — the 
heading,  the  address,  the  salutation,  the  body  of  the 
letter,  the  complimentary  ending,  the  writer's  sig- 
nature. 

The  heading  should  give  the  place  and  date  of 
writing.  It  may  occupy  one,  two  or  three  lines,  ac- 
cording to  the  space  it  requires.  It  should  begin 
near  the  top,  and  about  half  way  across  the  page  to- 
ward the  right.  The  whole  of  the  date  should  be  on 
one  line.  Except  in  business  letters,  it  is  allowable 
to  omit  the  heading  and  write  the  name  of  the  place 


MANNERS   AND   USAGES   OF  SOCIETY.  655 

and  the  date  at  the  left  of  the  page,  lower  than  the 
signature.  The  address  of  a  letter  consists  of  the 
name  and  title  of  the  person,  or  firm,  to  whom  it  is 
written.  Sometimes,  especially  in  business  letters, 
the  residence  or  place  of  business  is  added.  It  is 
polite  to  use  an  appropriate  title  with  the  name  of 
the  person  addressed,  such  as  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Miss,  Dr., 
Rev.,  Hon.,  Rev.  Dr.,  etc.  The  address  may,  like 
the  heading,  occupy  one,  two  or  three  lines.  It 
should  be  lower  than  the  heading,  and  should  begi'n 
near  the  left  margin  of  the  paper.  In  familiar  letters 
the  formal  address  may  be  omitted.  The  form  of 
the  salutation  depends  upon  who  is  writing,  who  is 
addressed,  and  what  degree  of  intimacy  there  is  be- 
tween the  two. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  be  conventional  in  the  salu- 
tation of  familiar  letters. 

No  explicit  directions  can  be  given  for  the  body 
of  a  letter.  A  business  letter  should  be  concisely, 
clearly  and  politely  expressed  In  any  letter  avoid 
the  too  frequent  use  of  the  pronoun  / 

None  but  the  most  common  abbreviations  should 
be  used,  and  no  figures  except  in  connection  with 
dates  or  large  sums  of  money. 

Do  not  use  the  sign  "  &"  except  in  the  name  of  a 
firm. 

The  complimentary  ending  is  a  courteous  assurance 
of  good  faith,  respect  or  affection  which  is  added  to 
the  end  of  a  letter.  One  should  say  something  in 
keeping  with  the  style  of  letter  he  has  written,  and 


656   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

with  his  relations  to  the  person  addressed ;  and  he 
should,  at  the  same  time,  express  his  feelings  truth- 
fully. In  business  or  formal  letters  the  common 
forms  are :  Yours  truly,  Yours  respectfully,  Very 
truly  yours,  etc.  In  extremely  formal  letters,  '''Your 
obedient  servant"  is  sometimes  used.  For  friendly 
or  familiar  letters  there  is  a  great  variety  of  forms, 
such  as,  Faithfully  yours,  Yours  sincerely,  Ever  most 
gratefully  yours,  etc.  The  signature  is  to  be  written 
distinctly  on  the  line  following  the  complimentary 
ending.  The  signature  in  all  formal  letters  and  docu- 
ments should  be  the  full  name,  and  never  a  nick- 
name. A  lady  when  writing  to  a  stranger  should 
sign  her  name  so  as  to  show  whether  she  is  to  be  ad- 
dressed as  Miss  or  Mrs. 

Fold  a  letter-sheet  by  turning  up  the  lower  edge 
to  meet  the  upper  evenly.  Then  fold  twice  the  other 
way, —  first  the  left  edge,  then  the  right,  making  the 
distance  between  the  folds  a  little  less  than  the  width 
of  the  envelope. 

If  the  envelope  is  nearly  square  fold  the  paper 
once  in  the  middle. 

The  envelope  and  the  paper  should  match  in  size 
and  tint ;  the  superscription  should  consist  of  the 
name  and  title  with  the  post-office  and  state,  and 
sometimes  the  street  and  number ;  also  sometimes 
the  county,  and  sometimes  the  name  of  the  person 
in  whose  care  the  letter  is  sent.  The  stamp  should 
be  evenly  placed,  right  end  up,  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  from  the  upper  right-hand  corner. 


MANNERS  AND   USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  657 

A  letter  of  introduction  should  have  written  on 
the  lower  left  hand  side  of  the  envelope, —  "  Intro- 
ducing Mr.  ."  A  letter  of  introduction  should 

not  be  sealed. 

Always  enclose  a  stamp  when  a  reply  is  asked  as 
a  business  favor. 

The  style  of  letters  and  cards  of  invitation  differs 
according  to  the  occasion. 

A  large  dinner,  being  a  formal  affair,  would  require 
a  formal  invitation,  either  engraved  or  written.  If 
paper  is  used,  the  paper  referred  to  for  letter-writing 
would  be  in  good  taste.  If  cards  are  used,  as  they 
vary  in  style  at  different  times,  it  would  be  a  safe 
plan  to  consult  some  one  who  knows  what  the  pre- 
vailing style  is.  The  formula  of  the  invitation  should 
be  as  follows. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Henry  Brown 

request  the  pleasure  of 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Jones  s  company  at  dinner^ 

November  twelfth,  at  seven  o'clock. 

125   Chase  Avenue. 

The  reply  should  be  couched  in  just  as  formal  (or 
informal)  language  as  is  the  invitatioa 
For  example : 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  fames  Jones 

accept  with  pleasure  the  kind  invitation  of 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Henry  Brown,  for  dinner, 

on  November  fifteenth, 

at  seven  o'clock. 
42 


658   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Invitations  to  evening  or  day  receptions  are  gen- 
erally "At  home  "  cards.  A  lady  may  use  her  own 
visiting  cards  for  five  o'clock  tea.  For  other  enter- 
tainments, "  Music,"  ll  Tennis,"  etc.,  may  be  engraved 
in  one  corner,  or  written  in  by  the  lady  herself. 
When  gentlemen  are  to  entertain  they  should  not 
invite  by  "At  home  "  cards,  but  should  "  request  the 
pleasure,"  etc. 

Wedding  invitations  are  engraved  in  small  script 
on  note  paper.  The  style  can  be  obtained  from  a 
fashionable  engraver. 

The  same  rule  holds  in  receptions. 

Never  write  simply  "  Regrets  "  on  a  card. 

Either  send  a  visiting  card,  or  write  a  note,  thus  : 
"  Mrs.  Brown  regrets  that  a  previous  engagement  will 
deprive  her  of  the  pleasure  of  accepting  the  kind  in- 
vitation of  Mrs.  Jones."  No  one  should  economize 
politeness  in  accepting  or  refusing  an  invitation.  It 
is  better  to  err  on  the  other  side. 

No  form  can  be  given  for  a  letter  of  condolence 
written  by  an  intimate  friend.  If  an  acquaintance 
wishes  to  express  sympathy,  but  does  not  feel  at 
liberty  to  write  a  note  of  condolence,  a  visiting  card 
may  be  sent  or  left  with  the  word  "  sympathy  "  writ- 
ten on  it 

Any  card  should  be  scrupulously  plain. 

Titles  are  rarely  used  on  visiting  cards.  A  gen- 
tleman should  prefix  Mr.  to  his  name,  and  a  married 
woman  Mrs.,  and  an  unmarried  woman  Miss. 


MANNERS   AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  659 

A  married  woman  should  have  her  husband's  name 
engraved  on  her  card  (as,  Mrs.  James  Fulton  Brown), 
during  his  life.  A  widow  does  not  use  her  husband's 
given  name.  She  may  have  on  her  cards,  Mrs.  Mary 
Brown,  or  simply,  Mrs.  Brown. 

Should  a  son  bear  his  father's  name,  so  that  there 
may  be  two  "  Mrs.  John  Browns,"  and  as  "old  Mrs. 
Brown,  or  young  Mrs.  Brown"  may  be  objection- 
able, there  is  no  other  way  than  to  use  the  Christian 
name.  Mrs.  John  Brown,  Jr.,  may  be  used  until  the 
husband  ceases  to  be  a  junior. 

If  cards  are  left  or  sent  preparatory  to  leaving 
town,  the  letters  P.  P.  C.  (pour  prendre  cong£),  or 
T.  T.  L.  (to  take  leave),  should  be  written  in  pencil 
on  one  corner 

MISCELLANEOUS  SUGGESTIONS. 

"Complimenting  is  one  of  the  duties  of  life.  No 
one  is  exempt  from  the  obligation  to  pay  compli- 
ments at  the  proper  time  to  the  proper  person.  No 
one  can  be  too  humble  to  be  entitled  to  receive  com- 
pliments from  the  highest.  No  one  can  be  too  high, 
or  too  great,  to  receive  compliments  from  the  low  and 
little.  It  is  courteous  to  commend  what  is  commenda- 
ble. Many  find  it  easy  to  speak  words  of  blame,  but 
do  not  seem  to  think  what  gratification  a  word  of  de- 
served praise  affords.  The  language  of  compliment 
is  not  that  of  mere  flattery." 

Gentlemen  should  not  remain  seated  when  there 
are  ladies,  or  older  people,  standing  in  the  room. 


66O   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

Young  people  should  not  occupy  the  easiest  chairs, 
nor  the  most  comfortable  places  in  a  room,  when 
older  people  are  present. 

When  one  is  trying  to  entertain  a  company  by 
music,  or  reading,  the  company  should  give  respect- 
ful attention,  never  annoying  the  performer  by  talk- 
ing, or  moving  about. 

One  should  give  respectful  attention  to  another 
who  is  talking  to  him.  It  is  rude  to  allow  one's  eyes 
to  wander,  or  to  give  divided  attention  at  such  a  time, 
even  if  what  is  said  is  not  interesting. 

Demonstrations  of  affection  are  out  of  place  in 
company,  or  anywhere  else  in  public. 

Reading  to  one's  self  in  company  is  inexcusable. 
Reading  aloud  is  still  worse,  unless  by  special  re- 
quest. 

When  entering  a  private  house,  gentlemen  should 
remove  their  hats.  Any  one  should  remove  rubbers. 
It  is  allowable  for  a  gentleman  to  retain  his  hat  and 
stick,  in  his  hand,  if  he  does  not  choose  to  leave 
them  in  the  hall.  On  no  account  should  the  hat  be 
placed  on  a  chair  or  table  in  the  parlor.  In  entering 
a  parlor,  host  and  hostess  should  be  first  sought  out 
and  spoken  to.  If  the  family  only  be  present,  the 
one  entering  may  properly  shake  hands  with  all. 
This  is  partly  a  matter  of  choice,  but  if  it  is  either  a 
formal,  or  an  informal  call,  it  is  highly  proper. 
When  the  company  is  large  it  is  unnecessary,  The 
same  direction  applies  in  leaving. 


MANNERS  AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  66 1 

When  in  company,  or  when  making  a  call,  loung- 
ing or  rocking  should  not  be  indulged  in.  Sitting 
with  the  chair  tipped,  or  with  the  feet  on  the  rounds, 
is  not  allowable.  Ladies  should  not  sit  with  the  feet 
or  knees  crossed.  Gentlemen  should  not  sit  with 
the  feet  elevated.  The  feet  should  remain  on  the 
floor,  and  should  be  as  inconspicious  as  possible. 

Fumbling  or  fussing  with  the  watch-chain,  or  with 
any  thing  else  should  be  avoided  ;  also  drumming 
with  the  fingers,  or  twirling  things.  When  the 
hands  are  not  necessarily  occupied  they  should  be 
kept  quiet.  Constant  and  unnecessary  motion  of 
hands  or  feet  gives  one  an  appearance  of  restless- 
ness which  is  not  at  all  conducive  to  elegance  of 
manner. 

Passing  directly  in  front  of  people  should  be 
avoided,  if  possible.  It  is  better,  however,  to  pass 
in  front  of  others  with  a  "  Pardon  me,"  than  to  crowd 
behind  them. 

A  gentleman  should  allow  a  lady  to  pass  through 
a  door  before  him,  holding  it  open  for  her.  Gentle- 
men should  go  up-stairs  before  a  lady,  and  behind 
her  coming  down. 

No  definite  rule  for  the  making  of  gifts  can  be 
laid  down,  but  it  may  be  stated  that  the  promiscuous 
gift-making  now  so  prevalent  in  this  country  is  vulgar. 
It  would  seem  in  good  taste  to  make  gifts  to  special 
friends  only.  Gifts  should  always  be  acknowledged, 
but  it  is  indelicate  to  make  an  immediate  return,  as 
if  in  payment 


662   A  PRACTICAL  BOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  PEOPLE. 

It  is  better  to  buy  than  to  borrow,  but  if  borrow- 
ing is  unavoidable,  the  article  borrowed  should  be 
speedily  returned.  Under  no  consideration  should 
the  liberty  be  taken  of  lending  a  borrowed  article. 

If  a  borrowed  book,  or  other  article,  is  irreparably 
injured,  it  is  a  duty  to  replace  it. 

Borrowed  articles  should  be  returned  by  the  bor- 
rower, or  by  a  servant.  It  is  rude  to  ask  the  owner 
of  a  borrowed  article  to  take  it  home. 

There  are  many  optional  civilities  in  life  which  add 
much  to  its  charms,  but  which  cannot  be  laid  down 
in  a  treatise  on  etiquette.  To  know  what  to  say, 
"Pray,  be  seated,"  "Do  not  stand  without  your  hat," 
"  Do  not  rise,  I  beg  of  you,"  and  a  thousand  other 
polite  phrases,  depend  upon  the  thoughtfulness  and 
ready  tact  of  the  person  who  says  them. 

Dr.  Munger  has  finely  said  :  "  Delicacy  leads  one 
instantly  to  see  the  line  beyond  which  he  may  not  go; 
to  detect  the  boundary  between  friendliness  and  fa- 
miliarity, between  earnestness  and  heat,  between 
sincerity  and  intolerance  in  pressing  your  convictions, 
between  deference  and  its  excess.  It  is  the  critic 
and  mentor  of  the  gentlemanly  character.  It  tells 
him  what  is  coarse,  and  unseemly,  and  rude,  and  ex- 
cessive. It  warns  him  away  from  all  doubtful  acts 
and  persons.  It  gives  little  or  no  reason  —  it  is  too 
fine  for  analysis  and  logical  process,  but  acts  like  a 
divine  instinct,  and  is  to  be  heeded  as  divine.  A 
man  may  be  good  without  it,  but  he  will  lack  a  name- 


MANNERS   AND    USAGES   OF   SOCIETY.  663 

less  grace  ;  he  will  fail  of  highest  respect ;  he  will 
make  blunders  that  hurt  him  without  knowing  why ; 
he  will  feel  a  reproach  that  he  cannot  understand. 
It  is  this  quality  more  than  any  other  that  draws  the 
line  in  all  rational  society." 


The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  her  indebtedness  to  Messrs. 
Houghton  &  Mifflin,  Harper  &  Bros.,  The  Taylor-Austin  Co.,  Dr. 
T.  T.  Munger  and  Henry  Altemus,  who  have  courteously  allowed 
her  to  make  the  foregoing  quotations. 


INDEX. 


OUR  TARIFF  AND  TARIFF  LEGISLATION. 

Free  Trade.  PACE. 

Advalorem  duties 57~59 

Definition  of 86 

Doctrine  of 82 

Farmers  and 92-98-101 

Laborer  and 9I-93 

Principles  of 88 

Protection. 

Advantages  of 114 

Articles  selected 61 

Elaine  on 113 

Early  feeling 2 

Edmunds  on Il6 

Farmers  and 119 

Hamilton  on 107 

Operation  of 55 

Specific  duties 57~59 

Trusts  fostered 104 

Wages,  United  States  and  England 77 

Webster's  opinion 44~45 

Raw  Materials. 

Argument  of 103 

Farm  products 136 

Free  lumber 138 

Relation  to  shipping 121 

Those  to  be  admitted 122 

Wool  free 132 

Reciprocity. 

Abandoned 147 

Brazil 149 

Cuba 149 


666  INDEX. 

OUR  TARIFF  AND  TARIFF  LEGISLATION  — Continued. 

Reciprocity.  PACE. 

McKinley  Act 53 

Spain 148 

State  Rights. 

Jackson 27-33 

Nullification 31 

South  Carolina  and  Georgia 27-28-34 

Statistics. 

Acres  in  tillage 66 

Acres  in  crops,  pastures,  etc 72-80 

Cotton,  tobacco,  sugar,  potatoes 71 

Capital  in  agriculture 67-68 

Cotton  mills,  1804 63 

Duties  No.,  1804-1870 58 

Farm  mortgages    ...    81 

Farm  products,  value  of 74 

Farming  area 71 

Food,  cost  of    77-78 

Grain  crops,  increase  of 65 

production  in  1887 65 

in  1700  to  1884 69 

by  States 70 

Labor  in  manufacturers,  per  cent  of 63 

Live  stock  production 73 

Meat  production  ...    66 

Persons  engaged  in  tillage 66 

Rate  of  capital  and  products 67 

Value  of  farm  manufacturings  and  products 82 

Wages,  1795 62 

1840-1880 76 

Trades 79 

Tariff,  opinion  of 

Adams 10 

Calhoun 14 

Clay 17-22 

Hamilton 9 

Madison 5 

Position  of  the  different  States 6 

Story 4 

Washington 8 

Webster..  18 


INDEX.  667 


OUR  TARIFF  AND  TARIFF  LEGISLATION  —  Continued. 

Tariff  Laws.  PAGB. 

Act  of  1816 14 

1824 17-21 

1828 23 

1846 43 

1857 46 

1864 48 

1870 50 

1883    51 

Bill  of  1844 125 

"Corn  Laws"..- 44 

Compromise  bill .  -33-36 

Effect  of 40 

Embargo  Act 12 

First  Act 4 

Effectof ii 

Madison  Act 6 

Mills  bill 52 

McKinley  Tariff 52 

Non-Intercourse  Act 13 

War  Tariff 47 

THE  TARIFF  QUESTION  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT. 

Free  trade. 

Campaign  funds 159 

Protection  and  prices 160 

Revenue 189-191 

Republican  record  (Russell), 154 

Republican  utterances  (Russell) 156 

Protection. 

Farmer  and 176 

Home  market 187 

Price  of 163 

Trusts  fostered '. 174 

Wages  compared 179 

Wages,  why  higher 185 

Wages,  determined  by 187 

Who  pays  the  tax 166 

Raw  material. 

Ames  on 172 

Consumer,  benefit  to 167 


668  INDEX. 

THE  TARIFF  QUESTION  FROM  A  DEMOCRATIC  STANDPOINT— 

Continued. 
Raw  material.  PACK. 

Cramp  on 172 

Democratic  position 153 

Producers,  benefit  to 167 

Relation  to  wages 

Roach 172 

Shoddy  used. 170 

Wool  and  manufacturer 168 

Tariff. 

Democratic  position 151 

Tariff  tax 152 

TARIFF  FROM  A  REPUBLICAN  STANDPOINT. 

Protection. 

Advocates,  prominent 201 

Farmer  and 202 

Home  market 203 

Protective  tariff 198 

Sirikes,  not  caused  by 212 

Wages,  effect  on 195,211,  212 

Raw  materials. 

Law  of  1890 , 208 

Cheapness  of  articles  209 

Statistics. 

Compared 204,  205 

Commerce,  national  and  foreign  manufacturers,  value  of 205 

Wages  (Atkinson) 210 

Tariff. 

Consumer  and 194 

Differences *99 

Effect  of... 193 

Kinds.    192 

Revenue,  theory  of I92 

Reasonfor I92 

GOLD  AND  SILVER  QUESTION. 

Gold. 

Coins  reduced  in  weight 228 

Discovery  in  America 216 

Proverbs  concerning 218 


INDEX.  669 

GOLD  AND  SILVER  QUESTION —Continued. 

Gold.  PAGE. 

Scarcity  of ., 237 

The  gold  dollar 227 

Where  found 215 

Yield  of  different  mines 218 

Yield  in  Europe  and  America 238 

Money. 

Antiquity  of 214 

Debasing  coinage 225 

Greenbacks 241 

Necessity  of  a  standard  of  value 224 

Origin  of  the  "  dollar" 226 

Standard  in  France 231 

Silver. 

Effect  of  free  coinage  of  silver  dollars 232 

Coins  of  different  countries 216 

Demand  for  silver  dollars 230 

In  Mexico 239 

Jefferson  stops  coinage  of  silver  dollars 228 

The  silver  dollar 227 

Where  found 215 

Silver  question. 

Obligations  of  the  country 232 

Relative  to  stable  products    234,  235,  236 

Wages 240 

Values,  relative,  of  gold  and  silver. 

Committee  of  investigation 233 

Declaration  of  Congress  in  1890 230 

In  1878 229 

CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS. 

Columbus,  Dream  of 261 

Earth's  form,  Theory  of 258 

Ferdinand 256 

Guttenberg 255 

Isabella 256 

Moslems 255 

New  World ,  Popular  idea  of 263 

Posterity  affected  by  earthly  trials 262 

Vikings 254 


670  INDEX. 

COUNTRY  LAD  IN  THE  CITY.  PAGE. 

City  life  270 

Constitution,  Value  of  a 274 

Dispatch,  Value  of 273 

Early  ambitions 269 

Filial  obligations   281 

Mother's  training .     276 

Temptations 275 

Principles  of  life 277 

Religious  notions 275-276 

Success,  Chances  of 278 

Road  to 280 

Rules  for 280-281 

What  to  expect 271 

HOME  ON  THE  FARM. 

Arnold  Matthew  ...   ., 291 

Concrete 303 

Clover 323 

Clover,  chemical  action  of 324,  325 

Drives 300 

Farm  boys  in  other  positions 291 

Farm's  best  product 292 

Farm  products,  value  of 311 

Farms,  large  or  small 312 

Fertility,  how  maintained 317 

Fences 304 

Flowers 299 

Garden 307 

Home  made  attractive 293,  295 

Literature  in  home 293,  294 

Manures,  value  of 319 

Commercial 321 

Green 322 

MONEY  IN  GARDENING. 

Best  location 349 

Drainage 366 

Marketing 343,  351 

Onions 257 

Parsnips 356 

Soils  adapted  to  different  crops   341,  355 


INDEX.  671 

POTATO  CULTURE.  PAGE. 

Blight 429-431 

Bugs 426-428 

Burying  seed 406-407 

Care  of  crop  418 

Care  of  seed 404-405 

Clover 438 

Com  mercial  fertilizers 389 

Cultivate,  Why  we 423 

Cultivation 418-424 

Cutting  seed 413-415 

Digging 434-437 

Drills 400 

Harrowing 380-382 

Hills 400 

Manures  and  their  application 382 

Planting 392~399 

Plowing , 375-378 

Production  and  profit 445 

Rotation  of  crops 438-445 

Scab,  Prevention  of 410-412 

Varieties  of  seed 401-403 

PARLIAMENTARY  LAW. 

Adjournment 492 

Amendments 482 

Committees 517 

Debates 506 

Elections 516 

General  suggestions 526 

Kinds  of  assemblies 452 

Members 468 

Motions 491 

Motions  —  their  precedence  and  value 505 

Nominations  458 

Officers 462 

Organization   457 

Point  of  order 476 

Previous  question 480 

Privileged  motions 492 

Questions  of  order 496 

Questions  of  Privilege 494 


672  INDEX. 

PARLIAMENTARY  LAW  — Continued.  PA&E. 

Questions  of  consideration 476 

Reading  of  papers 498 

Reconsideration .  .  500 

Secretaries 466 

Subsidiary  motions 475-496 

Summary 503 

Suspension  of  rules 499 

To  lay  on  the  table , 477 

To  postpone  indefinitely 478 

To  postpone  to  a  certain  day 478 

To  commit 479 

Transaction  of  business 470 

The  quorum 455 

The  origin 451 

The  necessity 447 

Voting 512 

Withdrawing  a  motion 499 

COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  FORMS. 

Agency 531 

General 531 

Professional... 532 

Special 531 

Attorney 

Power  of 532-533 

Carriers  (common) 537 

Carriers  of  passengers 538-539 

Liabilities  of 538 

Obligations  of 537 

Checks 540 

Drawn  to  "  self " 540 

Indorsements 541 

Stopping  payment , 540 

Top  of  note , 541 

When  negotiable 540 

Contracts 552 

Assent 555 

Construction 557 

Consideration 552-554 

Damages 557 

Forms  of 558-560 


INDEX.  673 

COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  FORMS  — Continued. 

Contracts.  PAGE. 

Force  of  seal  on 561 

Fraud 555 

Interpretation  of 558 

Intention 558 

Meaning  of  terms 558 

Subject-matter 554 

The  essentials 552 

The  parties 552 

Time 555 

Currency.... 539 

Bonds  deposited 539 

Cash  on  hand 540 

Capital  required  for  bank - 539 

Notes,  security  of 540 

Days  of  grace , 544 

Falling  on  Sundays  or  Holidays 544 

Law  merchant 544 

Defense  of  notes 548 

Compulsion 548 

Fraud 548 

Want  of  consideration 548 

Demand 544 

During  business  hours 545 

To  whom  presented 544 

When  presented 544 

Where  presented 545 

Deeds 533 

Acknowledgement 535-537 

Consideration 533 

Forms  of 534 

Subject-matter 533~534 

Separate  acknowledgments 537 

Essentials  of  Letter-writing 582 

Body 607 

Capital  Letters 582,  583 

Conclusions 609 

Date 603 

Examples  of  Dates  and  Headings 604 

Forms  of  Different  Letters 611-616 

Heading  of  Letters 603 


674  INDEX. 

COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  FORMS  — Continued. 

Essentials  of  Letter-writing.  FACE. 

Introd  action 604 

Pronunciation 590-602 

Punctuation 583-588 

Salutations 605-607 

Spelling 589-590 

Style 607-608 

Superscription 608-611 

Forms  of  Notes 550 

Certificate  of  Deposit 552 

Joint  and  Several  Note 552 

Judgment  Note 550 

Married  Woman's  Note 552 

Promissory  Note. .' 551 

Guaranty 548 

Forms  of 548 

Guarantee  of  Payment 548 

Collection 548 

Law    of    Place  — governs    payment,    indorsement,    days    of 
grace,  etc , 545 

Married  Women,  Rights  of 573 

Alabama 573 

Arkansas 573 

California 573 

Colorado..   573 

Connecticut 574 

Idaho 575 

Iowa 576 

Kansas 576 

Massachusetts 577 

Michigan 578 

New  Hampshire 579 

New  Jersey 579 

New  York 580 

Ohio 580 

Vermont 581 

Virginia 581 

Wyoming 582 

Notes    541 

After  maturity 543 

Before  maturity 543 


INDEX.  675 

COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  FORMS  — Continued. 

Notes.  PAGE. 

Essential  points 541-542 

How  transferred 543 

Indorsements 542 

What  the)'  are 541 

Payments 566 

Labor  might  be  payment 567 

When  a  receipt  in  full  is  a  release 566 

When  the  amount  is  in  question. 566 

Partnership , 561 

Articles 563 

Dissolution 564 

Partners  561 

Powers  of  a  partner 563 

Subject  matter 563 

What  it  is 561 

Protest 546 

By  whom  made 546 

Forms  of 547 

How  to  be  served 547 

Kinds 547 

To  whom  made 546 

Waiving  protest 547 

What  it  is 546 

Presumption  in  case  of  notes. 

Holder  is  owner 549 

Regular  acquired 549 

Transfers  made  before  maturity 549 

That  it  means  what  it  says 549 

Resolutions 616 

Statute  of  Frauds 556 

What  contracts  must  be  in  writing 556 

Consideration 556 

Wills 567 

Bequest  in  Lieu  of  Dower 572 

Execution 568 

General  Form  of  a  Will 571 

Kinds 567 

Laws  of  Some  States 568 

New  York 569 

Other  States 570 


676  INDEX. 

COMMERCIAL  LAW  AND  FORMS  — Continued. 

Wills.  PAGB. 

Parties 567 

Subject  Matter 568 

MANNERS  AND  USAGES  OF  SOCIETY. 

Calls  and  cards 634 

Correspondence     653 

Courtesy 625 

Definition  of  a  gentleman 623 

Etiquette  of  introduction 652 

Etiquette  of  weddings 637 

Five  o'clock  teas 634 

Manners 626 

Manners  in  church  649 

Manners  in  places  of  amusement 650 

Miscellaneous  suggestions 659 

Outdoor  etiquette 647 

Table  etiquette 64 1 

The  true  gentleman 624 

Visiting 629 

Visits  of  ceremony .  633 


A          x"\      """"•'  UNI  III  II  III Illlllllllll  I'll  (III 


